Link to my you tube channel Abhilasha: This is not utopia

Link to my you tube channel Abhilasha: This is not utopia

 https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCqQ_cqmJ942TzusbubZpchw

Modulating religion in the twenty-first century and beyond: Why this must become one of the biggest agendas of the twenty-first century

 

Modulating religion in the twenty-first century and beyond: Why this must become one of the biggest agendas of the twenty-first century

 

Sujay Rao Mandavilli

 

What is religion?

The term religion is said to directly derive from both Old French and Anglo-Norman terms dated to the thirteenth century after Christ, and has various connotations: the idea of religion encompasses many moral and doctrinal aspects pertaining to daily life, and these most commonly include respect for the ability to differentiate right and wrong, moral obligations and responsibilities, sense of duty and purpose, religious sanctity, reverence for the Gods, and the spirits, differentiation between the sacred and the profane, definition sacred spaces, source of divine knowledge,liminality and liminal rites, etc.Thus, religion has always played, and continues to play a central and a pivotal role in human lives. The term religion can also be further traced back to the Greek word “threskeia”, as used by Greek scholars and thinkers of the likes of Herodotus and Roman Jewish thinker Josephus, and loosely refers to religion, though not always. It is somewhat difficult to trace the origin of either of the two words with any degree of certainty. There are so many different types of religions on earth that furnishing or providing an overarching definition would well-nigh be impossible. The term religion is also said to be derived from the Latin word religio. According to Roman statesman and philosopher Cicero who lived in the second century after Christ, and several modern scholars such as Tom Harpur and Joseph Campbell, the term religio comes from the term relegere, which consists of two parts, namely: re (which means "again") and lego (which means "to read"), where lego is in the sense of "go over", "choose", or "consider carefully". In some cases, the word also means “to bind or bring together”, “to tie together” (with something), or “to connect” (usually, the human with the divine). This term was carried forward with modification into several modern European languages as well. The term can be directly traced to, and attested in the English language in the thirteenth century, though not in the modern sense of the term.

Therefore, the idea of religion as we understand it today, is a relatively modern concept. It is commonly attributed to the English language only in the Seventeenth century. The term also emanated during the study of alien religions and belief systems during the age of exploration when travellers and voyagers like Christopher Columbus and Magellan set foot on foreign soil thereby greatly expanding human horizons. Most early or ancient religious texts such as the Torah, the Old testament, the New testament, the Qu’ran and the Bhagawath Geeta also do not define religion the way we understand it today.  The term religion also became amplified and crystallized when religious practices were studied in relation to, or in opposition to one another. The Sanskrit term “Dharma” is another close analogy we have to religion, though this often means duty; a precise English equivalent is lacking. The term “Hindu” was not perhaps used in Ancient India to refer to a religion, and as probably just a geographical expression, and an amalgam of diverse and discrete faiths and practises. It is sometimes seen as polytheistic, though some Hindu scriptures proclaim the idea of one God. It is also often associated with the idea of apotheosis.

Functions of religion

Any religion with all its myriad affiliated institutions plays a prominent role in daily social life. Society and culture (along with other political and economic institutions to a smaller degree) have played a very important role in shaping religion and religious institutions. But at the same time, many social and cultural institutions (along with economic and political institutions to a smaller degree), are also greatly influenced by religious institutions. Religion also it is argued, gives individuals a sense of direction and purpose in life, and guides them to all their travails and tribulations. Religion also reinforces a feeling and a sense of group solidarity and community belonging by providing a we-feeling and our-feeling. The term “We feeling” in sociology is a mutual emotional relationship between people in a community which binds them and keeps them together. At this state, the distinction between individual identity and community identity becomes blurred, and a sense of shared identity and shared values are fostered. Collective consciousness, also known as collective conscience, or collective conscious as described by many sociologistssuch as Antonio Gramsci and Michelle Filippini, is the set of shared beliefs, ideas, and moral attitudes which operate as a unifying force within society. Through this mechanism, different types of consciousness are coalesced into a unifying whole. However, this concept is sometimes associated with negative attributes such as group think and herd mentality. It therefore often leads to what sociologists describe as "hive mind", "group mind", "mass mind", and "social mind".CH Cooley, in his seminal work “Social organization”, published in 1909, formulated the idea of primary groups and secondary groups and their role in formulating social cohesiveness. He also spoke of social subjectivity, and the subjective mental processes of individuals. Several years earlier, he had proposed the concept of looking-glass self. All these have had some bearing on the study of religion.

Another concept is the idea of social solidarity which was first proposed by Emile Durkheim in 1893 as a part of his theory on the development of societies. Social solidarity may be subdivided into mechanical solidarity and organic solidarity. In the case of mechanical solidarity, integration and cohesion arises from a homogeneity of individuals or a set of individuals connected together through similarities. Organic solidarity is a form of social cohesion that arises based on the interdependence of people arising from specialization of work, division of labour, and complementarianism. All these concepts can also be applied to religious contexts too. This is often demonstrated through prayer or other kinds of ceremonies where different classes of people belonging to different castes of society assemble together. These actions lead to common feelings and a bonding amongst the worshipers of a particular religion. Religion also undeniably exercises a form of social control, and dictates other social and cultural activities. It also moulds and shapes society, and shapes the character of individuals in that society for better or for worse. It also helps individuals discharge their duties in society. Religion also provides the foundational basis for values even today, as most values and value systems today are shaped or dictated by religion. Even today, religious-inspired and religious-derived values have yet to be replaced by universal human values. One plausible explanation for this could be that the former are more appealing. In primitive societies, religious practices were crude, and lacked formal organization or standardization, though they eventually increased in complexity and sophistication. However, religion appears to show no sign of receding or fading. As a matter of fact, religion, religious orthodoxy and religious dogma appear to be increasing in many parts of the world.

One possible explanation for this is the great man theory. People cannot often stand up for themselves, and emulate great leaders blindly and slavishly. The following quote by Babasaheb Ambedkar sums this up succinctly in relation to Gandhi, “It is indeed extremely easy for anybody in India to become a Mahatma by merely changing his attire or his dress. If an individual is wearing an ordinary dress and is leading a mundane or an ordinary life even if he performs extraordinary or noble deeds, nobody takes any notice of him. But if a person or an individual who does not behave in normal manner and shows some queer or peculiar abnormalities or trends in his character, he instantly and automatically is recognized as a saint or a Mahatma. If an individual puts on a suit or ordinary dress and do something, people would not even like to look at him. But if the same person or individual discards all his clothes, run around naked, grows long hair, abuses, preaches to and lectures to people and drinks dirty water from the gutters, people fall at his feet, revers him and begin to worship him“. This quote dates back to several decades ago, but is still sadly relevant even now, and may continue for eternity, though it may lessen to a great degree. Social scientists must address all these grave concerns immediately, and must understand the human psyche thoroughly along with psychologists and social psychologist. There is lamentably, a wide disconnect between scholars of different hues and colours, and an interdisciplinary and a multidisciplinary approach is sorely lacking. Pedagogy of course needs a thorough and a radical overhaul, and we have discussed this repeatedly.

Rituals, prayers and rites prevailed in different important occasions in social life such as birth, marriage, harvesting, hunting, death etc. and in all these activities religious rites were performed in both primitive and more complex and evolved societies. In some cases, rites were associated with rites of passage or liminality, where the pre-rite social status was different from a post-rite social status. Examples of such rites are initiation rites of boys in Malawi. This was a concept first developed by Arnold Van Gennep. Ndembu rites, as studied by Victor Turner, were life crisis rituals, and rituals of affliction. These were undeniably related to their primitive religion. Such concepts were later extended to more complex forms of religion, and in modern life, births, marriages and deaths are also associated with ceremonies that are tied to religion. Such ceremonies can also have a non-religious connotation: ceremonies are performed during house warming ceremonies and inauguration of office complexes, and oath taking also. Therefore, religious ceremonies have many complex and wide-ranging functions just like religion. This is true in the modern world, and even in more advanced and industrialized societies. Even scientists are often religious; there is a certain degree of cognitive dissonance they invariably and inevitably live with.

The functions of religion in society may be classified into many groups. The first group comprises the personal functions of religion. Religion provides a great deal of solace and comfort in dealing with the challenges of modern times. It also provides an antidote to stress, anxiety and pressure, and a convenient escape route. It may also therefore be compared to a pressure valve or a relief valve. It also provides gratification to the soul. Many early sociologists, anthropologists, and most atheists attributed religion and belief in God to fear, but such notions may be highly reductionist and outdated. Of course, it can be attributed to the lack of confidence, but this is only one part of the story. Education can reduce the societal impact of religion, but only partially.  According to Sigmund Freud,” it is seen that how the religion gives tranquillity and by it we can tolerate the problems, suffering and injustice of this world…death is not the end of everything and it is a bridge between two worlds.”Freud even believed religion was rooted in human libido and mortido. According to the professor of philosophy Stephen T. Asma, religion can provide direct access to an emotional life in ways that science does not. Therefore, one can argue that science cannot ever replace religion. In sum, religion cannot be wished away as a mental disease or a symptom of primitive societies. Those who do so, will pay the price for it.

The human brain is a strange amalgam of different functions: the ancient reptilian brain which is by far the oldest (motor functions, fight-or-flight instincts, medulla, pons, cerebellum, midbrain, globus pallidus, and olfactory bulbs, etc), the limbic or mammalian brain (behaviour and emotions) and the much more recently evolved neocortex also called the neopallium, isocortex, or the six-layered cortex, (this deals with logic, reasoning, and rationality). Religion may be incompatible with the rational brain but it nourishes the emotional brain because it calms people, soothes them, and assuages their fears.According to leading neuroscientists like the American neuroscientist Jaak Panksepp, Portuguese neuroscientist Antonio Damasio and the American neuroscientist Kent Berridge, and neuro-psychoanalysts like Mark Solms, our minds are motivated primarily by not-so-logical and not-so-rational  emotional systems, like fear, rage, lust, love and grief. Hence, it would be highly illusory to expect humans to always act rationally.  The Swiss psychologist, Carl Yung likewise stated, “a believer person is the owner of a precious thing, it means that he owns something that gives meaning to his life and it is the origin of life and beauty and give magnificence to the world and individuals, such a person is having faith and comfort .According to Robert Ernest Hume, professor of the history of religions, ” Religion gives something to human being that cannot be received from any other source”.Therefore materialistic pursuits alone do not satisfy all human beings. Most atheists act and think in silos; many are evolutionary biologists, yet there is scarcely an inter-disciplinary approach. We must henceforth declare them outdated, just as we declare Marxist approaches to the study of religion highly outdated if not outright misleading. It is just wishful thinking, though the role played by religion in society can be mitigated through better education.

The second group comprises social functions of religion. Religion helps human beings relate to society, and its myriad and its multiple roles. It aids and assists him in accomplishing a meaningful and productive social life. Besides, it also helps him find his role and place in society, and helps him mitigate his suffering. Additionally, it helps amalgamate society, and remove fissures and schisms in society. Therefore, according to Kent Berridge, ” Religion is not only an attempt to determine the reality; it is the unity principle of human being society”.Therefore, according to Robert Smith. “Religion has two functions. One is regulating the personal behaviour for the benevolence of others and the other is motivating the common feeling and social unity”. Also, according to Emile Durkheim, religion reinforces social unity and stability. It is also an agent of social control, and cements a pre-defined social order. This unity is of course based on a commonality of beliefs, and less commonly, a commonality of purpose. The downside of religion however, is that while it unites people of a particular group, often people speaking different languages and belonging to different ethnicities, it automatically has a tendency to alienate and antagonize people from other religious groups.

Thirdly, religion can have a cultural aspect. It is important to note here that social and cultural dimensions of religion are entirely different despite a possible overlap. Both culture and religion can each other bidirectionally and multidimensionally. Adherents of a religion often act as brand ambassadors not only for a culture, but also for a nation and a region. Culture represents the way of life for a society, and culture intrinsically includes religion. Religion is also one of the most important determinants of culture. Wittgenstein and others gave the idea of culture a Marxist bias, but this is highly misleading. This is a view that pervades in some circles even today. Culture is real and can be scientifically approached and studied. At the same time, it is also subjective. Religious identity is also intertwined with other components of entity such as national identity, social identity, and cultural identity. It is for this reason, that religious shifts can sometimes be exceedingly difficult. Fourthly, religion may have an economic impact on society. For example, religious tourism is an important business in many different parts of the world. For example, the Tirupathi Balaji temple in South India is one of the richest in the world. Haj revenue constitutes a major source of income for Saudi Arabia.  According to Brian and Melissa Grim of Georgetown University, religion in the United States contributes $1.2 trillion each year to our economy and society which is more than the top ten technology companies combined. The publication of religious books and religious literature also constitutes a major business in some countries.

Fifthly, religion also has political connotations and overtones in many cases, and is associated with political power. This is because religion has historically played a major role in public life in many societies. It even makes or breaks rulers and governments in many cases. This has been witnessed and observed throughout history. Critics of Islam state that Islam is a quasi-political entity with so separation between religion and the state. The relationship between the two may of course be mutual and bidirectional. For example, the monarch is still officially the head of the Church of England, and the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom is still responsible for selecting the Archbishop of Canterbury.India is officially still secular, but its secularism has waned in recent times with the rise of Hindutva. This may have been both reactionary and non-reactionary, though vested interests and political forces and entities were indeed involved.[1][2]

Religion and identity

The term ‘identity’ stems from the Latin word idem which means same. The idea of identity stems from society or culture and may also be defined at a social group or an individual level: The former particularly influences the latter, but there is always a multi-layered differentiation. Thus, the idea of categorization is at the core of identity studies. (Jackson 2002) Theories and concepts in identity formation are widely used by anthropologists, sociologists, psychologists and philosophers in their research. Identity formation may be collective or individual, and the latter are particularly influenced by the former. Individual identities also reflect an individual’s own ambitions, urges and aspirations as shaped by society and yet are seldom fixed or permanent; they constantly evolve due to an individual’s interactions with society. The relationship is usually bi-directional because a society produces individuals and individuals in turn shape society to varying degrees.

Thus, an individual’s personality is shaped by complex forces which include geography, physical environment, cultural factors and unique personal experiences. Socially-shaped forces may be over-ridden by an individual’s unique experiences in most cases, producing a wide range of permutations and combinations, and leading to outliers and mavericks. The issues of self and identity are often used in Symbolic-interactionist theories which were first formulated by sociologists such as Herbert Blumer, G H Mead and C H Cooley and based on ground work carried out by the American psychologist John Dewey. According to such theories, ‘self reflects society’ or ‘society shapes self’ and this in turn shapes social behaviour. This school of thought postulates that human behaviour must be understood in relation to the environment and may therefore be referred to as a bi-directional approach. Berger and Gluckmann have called this relationship a “dialectic operation” (1967). Cooley also spoke about “Looking glass self” (Individual shaped by his views about himself) and through his interactions with social groups such as primary and secondary groups, a concept he proposed in 1909 in his book ‘Social Organization: Human Nature and Social Order’. (Cooley 1909; Mead 1934; Blumer 1969) However, society itself is highly differentiated on the basis of social class, gender, ethnicity, age, religion etc.

Thus, all these dimensions may impact a person’s identity to varying degrees. Identity formation is also based on a persisting entity known as personal continuity. The Personal Continuity theory states that there is a gradual build-up in a person’s ideas since birth, and that the build-up of ideas is more or less a continuous or a gradual process. This is akin to a tabula rasa or a blank slate. A human comes into this world with nothing and is neutral to all ideas, with the possible exception to some basic notions of right or wrong. Thoughts are then accumulated and built on and form the basis of new thoughts received. Thus, the sum total of thoughts and ideas of different individuals become unique over time. This process is typically understood in diachronic or synchronic terms, or a combination of the two. According to Daniel Shapiro, identity may not be static, but continuously changing and evolving. Likewise, according to Malcolm David Eckel, the self changes at every moment, and has no static identity. Thus, identity is continuously reinterpreted through the process of interaction with the society and world at large. Influencing factors include the hierarchy of the society, caste, religion, class etc, and the relationship with the world at large. It is therefore, a complex process through which the individual and collective identity gets reconstructed, reformed and rejuvenated constantly. Another related approach, The ‘Narrative psychology’ approach also views the development of the self as a continuous process of life-story construction.

People create scripts, and live out their lives in accordance with this script which rarely changes. The identity process model of Susan Krauss Whitbourne (1987) attempts to explain how identity changes and is based on work by Erikson, James Marcia and Piaget. Whitbourne views identity as an organizing schema through which an individual’s experiences are interpreted. (Whitbourne and Conolly 1999) Identity is determined by the accumulated perceptions of the self, both conscious and sub-conscious. Thus, perceived personality traits, physical characteristics and cognitive abilities determine the identity schema. According to Hall (Hall 1990), cultural identity is formed and redefined continuously as a result of complex and ever-changing patterns of interaction between the afore-mentioned elements. Thus, the process of identity-building is largely socio-cognitive, and one of the pillars of identity formation is resultantly social identity theory which also emphasizes contextual responsiveness, group behaviour and intergroup relations and was first developed by John Turner and Henri Tajfel in 1979. Thus new patterns of identity are constantly produced, and there is an element of plasticity in the process of identity formation. (Barker and Galasinki (2001)). Gerontologists also believe there is a desire to maintain a sense of continuity till death.

There are two primary identity styles. As per the assimilating identity style, new experiences are fitted into existing schema, while as per the accommodative identity style, the schema is adjusted to fit the new experience. In between the two, there can exist a balanced identity style which is desirable in most cases. The process of identity formation also changes with age, and old people may be more balanced and experimentative in their pursuits. Identity is also shaped by self-perception and an internalization of a culture’s attributes, and both these factors are subject to constant change producing new paradigms constantly. Furio Cerutti believes that identity is primarily shaped by self-perception and self-awareness. (Ceruti 2001) Others such as Howson (2004) believe that an individual’s identity is also largely shaped by others’ perceptions of him. These are therefore inter-individual processes of how reflected appraisals from others contribute to a definition of the self. According to the American Sociologist Manuel Castells (Castells 1997), identities may provide meanings and expressions to individuals themselves and are bi-directionally related to the ethos of a society. The process of identity formation is now also inevitably and inexorably tied to twenty-first century realities such as globalization and the gradual move towards a homogenized culture and the coming together of new thoughts and ideas to produce altogether new paradigms. This may never be realized completely, and there are opposing forces such as glocalization, and the persistence of individual cultures and identities.

Identity theory also owes a great deal to structural symbolic interactionism which is a sociological theory that discusses people’s ability to develop images in social and cultural contexts, and often in relation to one another. (Stryker 1980) (Tajfel 1978) Theories on Social Categorization, which classify individuals based on attributes into groups and their identification or association with such groups, also plays an important role. This has also led to studies on ethnocentrism (Grant and Brown 1995), group polarization (Wetherell 1987), and group cohesiveness (Hogg 1987) based on self-esteem, a feel-good factor, association, conscious or sub-conscious comparison, self-categorization and differentiation. Another important determinant is the Social role theory which analyses what roles individuals play in societies – these may be ascribed, prescribed or assumed roles. All these theories and ideas developed more or less independently, but subsequently cross-influenced each other. Thus, identity theories may be broadly classified into two groups – the first group analyses identity formation from a perceptive and a cognitive approach, and the second from a group dynamics approach.

Questions about identity are also very common in popular culture: The 2002 film, ‘The Bourne Identity’, based on Robert Ludlum’s film of the same name, and Czech-born French writer Milan Kundera’s book ‘Identity’ from 1999, largely deal with identity-based themes. Countless popular films and books across the world, deal with the topic of identity either directly or indirectly as this is a topic of great interest to the general laity. The process of identity formation is almost exclusively non-biological and non-genetic except where a superiority, inferiority or a persecution complex arising from ethno-biological identity is a contributor. An example of this is awareness of one’s skin colour in contrast to that of the population which leads to differentiation and identity formation. This is however, expected to be a peripheral factor in a vast majority of cases.

Religious identity

Religion may be defined as a cultural system of designated behaviours and practices, texts and sanctified places, often accompanied by a belief in a supernatural power, and many aspects of religion are claimed to be divinely ordained. The term religion originates from the Latin term religionem, which means “respect for what is sacred, reverence of the Gods, sense of right, moral obligation, sanctity”. The term religion may also have originated from the term religare, which means to reconnect. The Greek equivalent of the term religion was “threskeia”. The following are the most common Anthropological definitions of religion, and some of them overlap. These definitions also bring out the diversity of approaches towards religion, though there are two definition systems, the sociological-functional and the phenomenological-philosophical. Many of these revolve around a faith in a divine power, although underlying themes include social cohesion, the sacred and the profane, communication with spirits, veneration of the dead, magic and symbolism besides rituals, sermons, commemoration,, sacrifices, festivals, feasts, trances, initiations, funerary services, matrimonial services, meditation, prayer, music, art, dance, public services etc.

Thus, religions vary widely from one another, and in the way the mould the human experience and identity. Some religions like Islam may contribute to a strong identity, while some others less so. Thus, the effect of religion on society in general and on identity has to be assessed from context to context. It must also be borne in mind that the idea of a Godless society did not come to pass, and Atheists only constitute around fifteen percent of the world’s population, or even perhaps less. A religion is also considered to be a form of an ideology. The word “Ideology” is derived from the French word “ideologie” which was coined at the time of the French Revolution, and introduced by a philosopher, A.-L.-C. Destutt de Tracy, as a short name for what he called the “science of ideas”. An ideology refers to a collection of beliefs that are usually not fully tested or lack universal applicability or acceptance and lack value-neutrality. Ideologies possess both internal and external paradoxes that tend to pre-empt their demise and bring them in conflict with other groups. On the other hand, a cult may be defined as a system of religious veneration directed towards a figure or object and is a small religious group typically (usually fraudulent, and with a dubious moral stances). It may also be characterized by a great but irrational devotion to a person or cause, and stigmatized or looked down upon by society.

The strength of an ideology may be assessed based on various factors such as its ability to perpetuate from generation to generation, its ability to impose itself on others, ability to resist change, ability to resist influences from outside, ability to influence practitioners and mould their worldviews, ability to resist replacement ideologies, their degree of impact on an individual, ability to cater to psychological and social needs, and superimposition on cultural and biological identity. Thus, religions are like sports. They contain different elements of good and evil, and possess similar characteristics, yet none of them are exactly the same in all respects. Religions impact the process of identity formation though sacralisation, moulding thoughts and beliefs, fulfilment of emotional and social needs, and the enculturation arising due to association with people holding similar beliefs. Religions also shape thoughtworlds and worldviews in many different ways. For example, pork is taboo in Islam and beef is taboo in Hinduism. Idolatry is forbidden in Islam, and relationships with specific groups of people are also dictated by religion. Thus, Shias and Sunnis are mutually antagonistic to one another, and Islam shapes the attitudes of Muslims towards Jews, Christians, Hindus and atheists differently. Islam also distinguishes between Dar-ul-Islam and Dar-ul-harb (or even Dar-ul-Ahd), and treats apostates unfavourably. Non-Muslims in Muslim countries are called Dhimmis, and are not always treated with respect. This not only impacts the process of identity formation among Muslims and others in relation to Muslims, but also determines ideological distances as well. Muslims may over-emphasize fasting over other secular and non-religious values and virtues, and a couple of years ago, some Muslims in India opposed the Triple talaq bill as well.

Thus, religious texts must be the target of intensive and critical hermeneutical study to assess their impact on practitioners, after studying the centrality of these texts to a religion, and the religiousness of practitioners in general. Thus, the Qu’ran may be more central to a Muslim’s thought worlds and worldviews than the Bible is to the Christian’s. Religious ideologies may also vary based on strength. For example, Islam is seen as a powerful entity, while most tribal religions of Andaman and Nicobar Islands as much less powerful, and may not withstand the passage of time, with most of their practitioners having already converted to Christianity. A one size fits all approach can therefore never be applied. This would be one of the inputs for any attempt towards a cultural remediation. Methods may also be devised to ascertain the strength of ideologies or the distances between them, and methods used by linguists can provide some inspiration here.

Religion can also decline only very slowly, as it is linked to culture and social norms in many cases, and is seen to provide mental succour to its followers. As Durkheim states, one of the functions of religion is to unite their followers in a social solidarity. (Durkheim 1915) Therefore, many prophesies predicting the end of religion have not come to pass, and religion remains entrenched in most societies as strongly as ever before with religion-based conflicts on the rise in many parts of the world. Enculturation also begins early, and abandoning a religion is associated with social stigma, and conflicts with societal and family norms and values. In spite of all this, the centrality of religion has declined in many societies, and movements for religious reform have indeed proven successful, and these will provide a role model for other societies to follow suit.

Major changes to religion or religious shifts cannot happen easily or quickly, may be largely a result of historical accidents, and cannot be accurately predicted or statistically modelled. Cultural remediation cannot also guarantee changes to religion or religious shifts, as the latter may be well-entrenched. However, strength and nature of religious identities and human behaviour can be modelled with a fair degree of reliability, and can be used to assess identity changes and downstream changes. It may be prudent to initiate changes and reform and wait for results to manifest themselves slowly, given that religions, cults and ideologies are currently major cultural differentiators and obstacles to socio-cultural convergence. Solutions may also lie in identifying what functions of religion can be replaced and what cannot, creation of alternative framework in the long-run, and emphasizing other aspects of identity to dilute religious identity.[3][4]

Religious identity is also tied to territorial identity. Territorial identity can also be understood in the backdrop of World systems theory which is a multi-disciplinary approach to world history and social change and understands the world in the context of a world system. The idea of a world-system here refers to the inter-regional and transnational division of labour, which divides the world into three categories namely, core countries, semi-periphery countries, and the periphery countries. This idea originally emerged as a criticism of the modernization theory which considered nations to be the units of analysis. Per the world systems theory, core countries usually focus on higher skill, capital intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses including both semi-periphery and periphery countries focus on low-skill, labour-intensive production and extraction of raw materials. Thus, core countries dominate the world in terms of technology, and the rest of the world lags behind. This may be a Eurocentric vision, and we would like to see it challenged. The dominance of some nations is also not permanent, and can indeed change from time to time.

Territorial identity can also be understood in the backdrop of World systems theory which is a multidisciplinary approach to world history and social change and understands the world in the context of a world system. The idea of a world-system here refers to the inter-regional and transnational division of labor, which divides the world into three categories namely, core countries, semi-periphery countries, and the periphery countries. This idea originally emerged as a criticism of the modernization theory which considered nations to be the units of analysis. Per the world systems theory, core countries usually focus on higher skill, capital intensive production, and the rest of the world focuses including both semi-periphery and periphery countries focus on low-skill, labour-intensiveproduction and extraction of raw materials. Thus, core countries dominate the world in terms of technology, and the rest of the world lags behind. This may be a Eurocentric vision, and we would like to see it challenged. The dominance of some nations is also not permanent, and can indeed change from time to time. However, the model does allow for changes to categorization.

Immanuel Wallerstein has developed a highly popular version of world systems analysis, in the 1970s based on his Marxian and highly left-leaning analysis of the history of capitalism and capitalist countries. According to him, the rise of capitalism was an outcome of the crises in feudalism. Thus, capitalism was eventually used by the west to gain control over the whole world and assert its hegemony. World systems theory also differs from the dependency theory in that the latter has as its core guiding principle, some form of exploitation of peripheral and semi-peripheral countries by core countries. Another theory is the “Clash of Civilizations” proposed by the American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington. This theory with suitable modifications can also be used for an analysis on territorial identity. Thus, the idea of a universal civilization as proposed, conceptualized and conceived by VS Naipaul, Fouad Ajami, and others, may be a mirage and an illusion. The idea of a Davos culture may also be a mirage as elites may not be able to impose their culture on others. MN Srinivas also spoke about Sanskritization through upward mobility, but this may be traced only to specific contexts and situations. Mustafa Kemal Ataturk’s idea the non-western cultures must adopt western values to modernize, may not also be wholly correct. Thus, modernization and westernization are two different ideas and concepts, and it may be possible to modernize a society without westernization.

Westernization may also at times have a negative and a pejorative connotation, and an extreme version may be called “Westoxification”. While religion may be a cultural baggage for some societies such as Islamic societies, they can meaningfully, productively, and constructively reform without adopting the western mould in toto. The French orientalist Maxime Rodinson has opined that Islam is not necessary at odds with modernity, and does not necessarily stop Islamic countries from adopting capitalism. However, there is a catch here; Muslims countries of late have primarily progressed economically. Culturally and socially, they remain very different from the West. Indigenization has partially developed in rection to western-centrism; this may be either healthy or unhealthy; this may eventually lead to the amplification or modification of non-desirable, non-western traits in non-western societies in the long run through what we called fuzzy logic. 

Huntington’s thesis states that people's cultural and religious identities will be the chief source of conflict in the post–Cold War period. He argued that future wars would be fought not between countries, but between cultures and ideologies. Huntington divided the world into the "major civilizations" in his thesis as Western civilization, comprising the United States and Canada, Western and Central Europe, Australia, etc.. Another group is the Latin American civilization, comprising South and Central America, Mexico and Cuba, A third group is the Orthodox civilization, comprising parts of south eastern Europe and parts of the Soviet Union besides some Muslim nations. The Eastern world is the mix of the Buddhist, Chinese, Hindu, and Japonic civilizations comprising most of Asia. The Muslim world comprises most of the Middle East, and some parts of South Asia and Africa too. The last group in this list is Sub-Saharan African countries. On the other hand, the “New clash of civilizations theory” by Minhaz Merchant states that there are four major civilizational forces, namely the United States, China, India and Islam, and this theory states that conflicts between these forces will continue to shape our century. However, the west will gradually wane and then stabilize; the peoples of the East will progressively become more confident and assert themselves, their identity and their distinctness. Thought worlds will coalesce, and distinctions will become blurred. The French philosopher Gaston Bachelard spoke about the idea of epistemological rupture. Bachelard stated that science was constrained by different types of epistemological obstacles, and then the subsequent breaking down of these obstacles.These obstacles could include unthought and unconscious structures that existed or operated within the realm of the sciences; breaking them down would lead us to a higher state of understanding. It would also invariably lead to paradigm shifts in science.

Our approaches can also be used to study the relations between different religious groups such as Hindus and Muslims, Shias and Sunnis, and predict patterns of behaviour. This must also be studied along with other aspects of identity such as linguistic identity and national or territorial identity, as there will always be an overlap between different elements of identity. Religion also determines socioeconomic progress to a great degree. The Sachar report which was conducted by a high-level committee nominated by Prime Minister Manmohan Singh in India in 2006 was a survey that studied Muslim socio-economic conditions, and made a wide range of proposals to ameliorate their conditions. Harsh Mander tends to blame medievalist, misogynist, and regressive elements in Islam for their non-progress. However, he acknowledges that there is a glimmer of hope as in Islam, leaders such as Wafa Sultan and Ayaan Hirsi Ali have called for religious and institutional reform.Other thinkers take via media positions. Ramachandra Guha appears to be more critical of Islamic practices, but is not uncritical of Hindutva either. Mander believes that reform must begin slowly, and must obtain support from within communities. This is far from easy. Reformers such as Hamid Dalwai and Gopal Ganesh Agarkar did not find support in their respective communities, and met with stiff resistance.

Religious identity greatly impacts worldviews as well. Muslims often criticize Hindus for their idolatry, polytheism, caste system and many other forms of superstition. On the other hand, Hindus see Muslims as unpatriotic, and question their loyalty to the nation as well. In the year 1018, Mahmud sacked Mathura and Kanauj. It is also said that the Qutb Minar was built on the foundations of a Hindu and Jain temple, though this is disputed and contested. Feroze Shah Tughlaq desecrated the shrine of Jagannath at Puri, massacred infidels and imposed the Jizya tax in Brahmins. The sultanate rulers did not mass convert Hindus, but many Hindus converted to Islam during this period, usually low caste ones who felt oppressed by the Hindu caste hierarchy and Brahminism, and saw Islam as a manna from heaven. Extensive Historical records of religious violence exist for medieval India, in the form of narratives by Muslim historians. 

According to Will Durant, Hindus were persecuted during the Islamic rule of the Indian subcontinent, though this varied widely from ruler to ruler and region to region.Muhammed of Ghor alone is believed to have destroyed more than a thousand temples, often desecrating the idols. This temple looting and idol breaking spree appears to have manifested itself as far south as Madurai, Srirangam and Chidambaram. Historical records compiled by Muslim historian Maulana Hakim Saiyid Abdul Hai attest to the religious violence during Mamluk dynasty ruler Qutb-ud-din Aybak. The first mosque built in Delhi, the "Quwwat al-Islam" was built with demolished parts of twenty Hindu and Jain temples. Likewise, Timur’s conquest of India also marked the destruction of temples. In the 1190s, the famous Nalanda university was destroyed by a group of invaders led by Bakhtiyar Khilji, who sought to wipe out the Buddhist centre of knowledge during his conquest of northern India.The destruction of temples and educational institutions, the killing of monks, also led to a decline in traditional Indian education. There are varying narratives on contentious issues, and evidence for such events must always be examined and re-examined continuously.  

Religion also often leads to what one calls ‘Cognitive dissonance’. Cognitive dissonance is an outcome of a fallout of lack of consistence in real-world experience. This theory was famously propounded by Leon Festinger in ‘A theory of Cognitive Dissonance (1957)’. A plethora of contradictory ideas and viewpoints often makes a person uncomfortable, and he may undergo a great deal of stress as a result. This is based on the theory of consonant or consistent relationship between ideas, dissonant relationships, and irrelevant relationships. Cognitive Dissonance may also be spatial (arising due to interactions with society or the world at large), or temporal (thoughts or experiences misaligned with earlier thoughts or experiences). Cognitive Dissonance may arise within an individual, between individuals, between individuals and society, between society and the world at large, or between two different societies.

However, in our view, cognitive dissonance is a part and parcel of daily life, and is not heeded to unless it crosses a certain threshold which may vary from individual to individual. For example, an individual may attend religious congregations and be a part of scientific forums at the same time, without feeling the slightest degree of discomfort or attempting a rationalization or a reconciliation between two apparently disparate worldviews. If it however crosses this threshold, it may lead to a critical and grounds-up reassessment of a person’s ideas, and may even shake up his value or belief systems to the point of no return. This may cause immeasurable trauma and agony, and may breed exaggerated reactions. This may be described as a yoyo pattern, and equilibrium may not come quickly or easily, with the new-found hostility being directly proportional to the strength of formerly held beliefs. This apparently happened in the case of Babasaheb Ambedkar, Dalit writer Kancha Ilaiah, Islamic apostates Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Wafa Sultan, and Pakistani-American writer Muhammed Syed, all of whom turned hostile towards their former ideologies.

Cognitive Dissonance may also be self-reinforcing. It may reinforce previously held views and entrench them ever more deeply, thus acting as an identity reinforcer. One example that we would like to present here is the treatment of Muslims in China by the Chinese Government. Their approach, conceived in Communist ideology, may be far from logical and may only serve to make matters worse, reinforcing the adherents’ belief in Islam, instead of diluting it. Self-reinforcing Cognitive Dissonance may reinforce belief in an empirically provable fact. It may also reinforce belief in a falsehood that is believed to be true. In some cases, it may reinforce belief in an unproven fact or set of ideas, or fuzzy facts or fuzzy sets of ideas. The entire process itself may be referred to as fuzzy logic or fuzzy reasoning. This concept is loosely related to reinforcement, personalization and de-personalization in cognitive and social identity theory, but is by no means the same. Thus, there is a risk that Richard Dawkins’ hard-nosed atheism, may boomerang and achieve exactly the opposite of what this gentleman is seeking to achieve: an enforced belief in God and religion. No one likes to believe in a half-baked idea or an assertion. Let us all put this in our pipes and smoke it. The ISIS’s deviant ways have also instilled faith in Christianity among some sections of Muslims in the Middle East, particularly in formerly ISIS-held towns such as Kobani in Syria, and have greatly strengthened nascent Christian networks.

In addition, the following are the types of identity associated with Manuel Castell’s framework, and this would have some bearing on the process of identity formation. Identity can also have a bearing on political movements, and most political movements have historically centred on the issue of identity and belonging (Calhoun 1994) (Yuval-Davis 2010). As Jeffrey Prager notes in this regard, “identity politics is a cognitive map for actor to orient themselves towards others.” (Prager 2009):

Legitimizing identity: This type of identity refers to the identity associated with a dominant group in a given society. These identities usually try to maintain religious, caste or communal harmony through implicit pelf or power or by maintaining their domination. However, such identities may be neutral to the feelings of resistance identities and may oppose project identities. In India, this identity may be associated with dominant caste groups, and may have produced movement such as the ongoing rightwing Hindutva movement. Such identities however sometimes produce effects that are beneficial to society and may be associated with the build-up of patriotic, religious or nationalistic sentiments given their general access to education, knowledge and technology vis-à-vis other social groups, and their propensity for homogenization. However, for the most part, ideologies such as Hindutva may be extremely dangerous and counter-productive to society as they lead to superstition, blind faith, and hatred for other communities.

Resistance identities: These types of identities are created by individuals who are devalued, stigmatized or shamed by a particular social order or hierarchy, and whose identity and ethnic or cultural pride has been suppressed. Such identities may actively rebel against the existing status quo, and seek to establish a new social order. This group may manifest popular discontentment and aggressiveness and rebelliousness. Examples of such identities were that of Dalits in India, and Blacks and coloureds in Apartheid-era South Africa, all of which produced popular emancipatory movements and a transformation from ‘serie’ to ‘groups en fusion’. This is similar to the Marxist concept of ‘class-in-itself’ to ‘class-for-itself’. Another case in point is the anti-Tamil pogrom of Sri Lanka of 1983 which led to the emergence of the LTTE under Velupillai Prabhakaran, and other similar militant groups: similar movements of this kind manifest themselves with unfailing regularity in different parts of the world. The latter is associated with indignation, action and change as opposed to resignation and the acceptance of status quo. Some such movements also attempt to restore a mythical lost world or a golden age of the past. Identities may sometimes begin as resistance identities or later transform into Legitimizing identities. (Castells, 1997) (Longman, 2010)

Project identities: This type of identity arises when a new kind of identity (which may also be arrived at due to popular resistance or a negotiated compromise) is sought to be forged. (Castells, 1997) This identity attempts, and in some cases, successfully achieves a change in social structure towards greater equality and freedom. These identities interface in networked societies to produce altogether new paradigms. In due course, such identities may lose their power or distinctive attributes, but this may not happen quickly or easily. One outcome may be a “Yoyo type change” which was discussed in our paper. For resistance identities, this may proceed from submissiveness to belligerence, and then stabilization. For legitimizing identities, it may proceed from dominance, resistance to change in status quo, acceptance of change, and readjustment.

Religious values 

Religious discrimination has been rampant in the past, and it is still rampant today. For example,  Jews were persecuted by the Nazis, and millions were killed. There were Hindu-Muslim conflicts in India over the past one millennium, some Muslim rulers persecuted against Hindus. In many Muslim societies, non-Muslims are discriminated against, (Saudi Arabia is only beginning to gradually reform, and Churches and temples are still not allowed to be built there; non-Muslim religious congregations, and an open display of non-Muslim faiths is still not allowed in Saudi Arabia)  and even Israel routinely discriminates against Palestinians. China, likewise, discriminates against Uighur Muslim, heavily and requires Islam to be practised only with Chinese characteristics. The solution to religious intolerance and discrimination is secularism, which must be practised correctly and appropriately, and without any other form of bias and prejudice. Secularism is the principle of being tolerant towards, or indifferent and sceptical towards different forms of religious belief. It requires non-discrimination between different believes, and from our perspective, a criticism or a critical evaluation of different religions and their content in a non-biased, non-prejudiced, and a non-discriminatory manner.

In the field of sociology, secularization refers to "a transition from a religious to a more worldly level". However as noted by Jack David Eller secularization may not negate religion completely, or move a society towards atheism. According to Peter Berger secularization is a ‘process by which sectors of societyand culture are removed from the domination of predominant religious institutions and symbols.’ Nikki Keddie has listed three ways in which secularization can take place: (1) An increase in the number of people with secular beliefs, characteristics and practices (2) A lessening of religious control or influence over major domains and spheres of life, and (3) A growth in state separation from religion and in secular regulation of formerly religious institutions and customs. Abdel Wahab El-Messiri also distinguishes between partial secularization and complete secularization. In case of the former, there is only a separation between religion and state; in case of the latter, religious values are eliminated from public life. Thus, for a state to be considered secular, religion should retreat wholly to the personal domain as pointed out by Charles Taylor. Followers of all faiths must also be granted equal rights, and there must be absolute equality before the law. Such states can have no state religion. The idea of secularism has a long and a chequered history, and some form of secularism was followed even as early as in Ancient Greece. However, the term in the modern sense was coined by the British writer George Holyoake.In the year 1636, Roger Williams founded the Providence Plantations settlement in present-day Rhode Islandin the USA with total freedom of religion. Mahatma Gandhi also promoted the virtue of secularism, and so did Mohammed Al Jinnah in his early vision for Pakistan.

One of the bases of secularism is absolute neutrality, and per this principle, the state must not take any sides in case of a religious or an ethnic conflict. Thus, the principle of equidistance or the arm’s length principle must be followed, and there must be an absolute separation between religion and the state. Secularism may also involve the creation of non-sectarian institutions which are not affiliated with any religion, and ensuring the correct interpretation of secularism at all times. The term also sometimes extends to providing equal rights to ethnic and linguistic minorities. Secularism also automatically draws people’s attention away from religions matters to non-religious matters, as religious matters must be relegated to the background. There are distinct traditions of secularism in the West, such the French tradition of secularism or laicite (the strict laique model), Benelux-German traditions, Turkish secularism or laiklik, American models, and Indian secularism, which has recently come under serious and severe threat. The idea of secular humanism rejects religious dogma, and advocate logic, reasoning, human progress and welfare above everything else. Another form is pillarization, where different religions have their own set of set of institutions. This system is present in the Netherlands, Belgium, and Italy. Another related concept is that of secular liberalism is a form of liberalism in which secularist principles and values, are greatly emphasised. Secular liberalism also supports the separation of religion and state.

One of the most important features of secularism is the separation of religion and state, either completely, or to the extent possible. This is important for a society to function democratically. Per this system, religious minorities must be granted the same rights as the religious majority, and the same rights must be applied to all. All religious groups must also have equal access to state and private resources, so as to mitigate and prevent any form of persecution and intolerance.  Secularism also encompasses the freedom to convert from one religion to another, or to leave religious beliefs completely. This right is however, not available in many countries and societies. It may also allow for religious reform in the interests of society or humanistic progress. A related term is pseudo-secularism. This implies that while the state claims to be secular, it, in practice is not.  Thus, religious diktats, and religious inspired laws are done away with, and secular constitutions adopted. Secularism also includes the idea and concept of religious tolerance, and tolerance towards other people’s beliefs and points of view. The concept of the relationship between church and state was also discussed and debated by the theologian Saint Augustinewho lived in the fourth and the fifth centuries after Christ.

Thomas Jefferson was one of the first modern thinkers to promote the separation of religion and state, as also did James Madison. During the Age of the Enlightenment, thinkers like Adam Smith, Montesquieu, David Hume, Baruch Spinoza, Voltaire, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau all proposed various forms of separation of church and state.The idea of secularism is also compatible with the Universal declaration of human rights, which was promulgated in 1948. The separation of religion and state is also sometimes known as disestablishmentarianism. The policy of accomodationism allows full freedom to citizens wishing to pursue any religion, while state sponsored atheism generally does not; the latter places serious and severe restrictions on religious groups as was widely practised in many communist countries. Different countries have varying degrees of separation between government and religious institutions, and many countries have a state religion even today. In general, tolerance for other religions and other points of view may have increased, though there are many exceptions to this observation. Religious intolerance has reared its ugly head repeatedly and from time to time in many different parts of the world.

There are many countries today with a state religion, and these include Saudi Arabia, Iran, Maldives, and Malaysia. In many countries, particularly Muslim ones, there is no freedom of religion. However, some Muslim majority countries such as Azerbaijan are secular, and countries such as the USA, largely practise a separation of religion and state. In countries such as the UK, there is an official state religion, but there is absolute freedom to practice other religions. In other countries such as Australia, Croatia, Italy, and China, there is no state religion. However, some otherwise progressive nations such as Finland, Sweden,and Greece do not practice a complete separation of religion and state. In France, a law separating religion and state was passed in 1905. Many countries impose the death penalty for apostasy (known as irtidad or ridda in Islam), blasphemy against Islam or its prophet (known as Shatim e Rasul) is also an offence punishable by death in many countries along with atheism. All this must change, we have launched the “Scholars and intellectuals for Mankind” (SCHIMA) forum in 2023, to discuss many such issues, and we hope to engage meaningfully and beneficially with scholars from all over the world. A critical evaluation and examination of religion to suit modern times, is absolutely required; however, this still remains a distant pipedream for the most part. This will of course be possible if productive forces come into meaningful play; this cannot happen without some separation between religion and state.

The idea of Secularism has been a controversial concept among Muslim thinkers due in part to the heavy nature of Islam, and the desire to maintain cultural and religious identity. Religious identity is also seen as a bulwark against western imperialism and hegemony, and all other forms of foreign ideologies and doctrines. In some circles, secularism is associated with atheism, irreligion or anti-religion, though there are fundamental differences between all these concepts. Secularism is still therefore largely frowned upon by the Islamic clergy in most Islamic nations. However, some Muslim thinkers have supported secularization of Islamic nations from time to time, and the abandonment of Sharia law which governs aspects such as marriage, divorce, and other familial matters. Some of these have included ex-Muslims (apostates) such as Salman Rushdie, Wafa Sultan, Ayaan Hirsi Ali, Waleed Al-Husseini, Ali Amjad Rizviand other reformist thinkers within Islam. Some Muslim states such as the Umayyad caliphate was also considered to be largely secular by Islamic standards. Some notable thinkers of Islam such as Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi and Rashid Rida also argued for some kind of a secularism. The Egyptian writer Taha Hussein argued for a complete separation of religion and the state. The term “enlightened moderation” is used in some circles to refer to a moderate form of an Islam.

This view is opposed by Islamists who strongly advocate for an all-pervasive Islam that encompasses theological law, politics, culture, economics, and intrudes into virtually every aspect and domain of the lives of ordinary citizens of Muslim nations. Some of them even denounce secularism as unislamic. Many ordinary citizens of Islamic countries also do not endorse total secularism, though this may perhaps change in due course. In Pakistan, almost seventy five percent of people; favoured the death penalty for leaving Islam under two decades ago, while for Bangladesh, the figure stood at forty three percent. Most people in these two countries had a fundamental anti-west orientation, and believed that Sharia was the revealed word of God. In several Islamic nations, the theocracy holds wide sway, and religion mores are dissemination due to indoctrination by the clergy or by the education system. The stranglehold of the clergy has been gradually weakening, and he have seen strong anti-religious movements emerge in Iran, besides other Islamic nations. 

The Institute for the secularisation of Islamic society was founded by the anonymous author Ibn Warraqwho was also the founder of the world encounter institute, to attempt to secularize the Islamic world. The Institute of Islamic Studies founded by Dr Asghar Ali Engineer also seeks to promote a highly liberal form of Islam, and to change people’s attitudes towards Islam as well, particularly those of Muslims. The Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture (ISSSC) is a multidisciplinary and nonpartisan institute that was established in 2005 at Hartford, Connecticut to advance the understanding of the role played by secular values in the process of secularization in modern society and culture.In 2020, Sudan’s government headed by Prime Minister Abdalla Hamdok and Abdel-Aziz al-Hilu leader of the Sudan People’s Liberation Movement-North rebel group, formally agreed to separate religion from the state, providing equal rights to all its citizens regardless of religion. Some people even accused Angola of banning Islam, though this is contested and disputed. A separation of religion and state must be necessarily derived from the principle of a secular constitution, and progressive groups over the next couple of decades must prevail upon all nations to a adopt one. In the west, secularism arose due to the scientific revolution and the rise of modern capitalism, but such changes have not been transmitted to non-western contexts and situations uniformly or evenly.

Replacement of non-religious values with religious values

Replacement of non-religious values with religious values must happen gradually; we must also phase out religious education eventually, and in due course. Readers may also refer to our “Structured apperception tests for sociocultural change”. These techniques can be used to bring about suitable changes in society. Readers may also refer to our papers and book on pedagogy, and our book on the sociology of science. Readers may also refer to our papers on sociocultural change, and our theories of sociocultural change including our concepts of mindspace, thoughtwords, worldviews, cultural-orientation, mind-orientation, cultural bottlenecks, cultural remediation, etc, for this purpose. Twenty-first century historiography too can play a major role in bringing about transformational change. For example, we need scientific versions of history, including the history of religion, not whitewashed versions, or ideologically-driven versions. Social science researchers must understand the contours and the dynamics of the religion in question. All religions are not equal; at the same time, religions are deeply entrenched in society, and cannot be wished away by a magic wand. Quixotic approaches will not work, neither will the approaches promoted and advocated by arch-materialists. All such approaches will be doomed to fail however well-meaning they might be. Karl Marx was hopelessly wrong about the role religion plays in human society; his ability to understand the human psyche was extremely limited. At the same time, Marxists stand accused of promoting Islamoleftism. What double standards! Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, all of them are different ideologies and different philosophies, and are not cut from the same cloth. They cannot therefore be tackled using the same techniques.

At the same time, we must devise and promote universal ethics and universal human values. We have written about this extensively in the past. This is far from easy, but we must take our first baby steps in this regard.  We can begin from school text books, and readers may refer to our earlier works on pedagogy. Muslim countries particularly flagrant violators because the track record of Muslim countries in human rights is often pathetic. However, these is a welcome change in Muslim countries as the ex-Muslim movement is going on strong. We also need social science experts to tell us whether the ex-Muslim movement can become a universal movement in those countries or not. They can advise us in this regard not only by extrapolating current and present trends, but by drawing suitably on social science research techniques, and analyses of Muslim society. We also need both science activism or scientific activism, and twenty-first century intellectualism. We had written about both these previously, and expect other scholars and researchers of repute to contribute.

Scholars and intellectuals for mankind (SCHIMA)

While we have still a long way to go, we had proposed many new sociological concepts in the sixty odd papers we had published in various journals. We hope that these will go at least some way in making the world a better place, through the medium of social science. In this paper, we had proposed the ten canons or the ten commandments of the thinktank “Scholars and intellectuals for mankind” (SCHIMA). To reiterate, these would be as follows:

1. A complete and a total separation of religion and state

2. Developing secular constitutions that grant all human rights to citizens

3. Universal education for all groups and both genders, and being UpToDate with latest pedagogical techniques so that educational systems can be brought UpToDate from time to time 

4. Granting complete religions freedom including freedom to practice, freedom to convert, and freedom to non-religion

5. Saying no to religious inspired laws, and instituting and promulgating secular laws 

6. Taking steps to promoting a scientific temper and a spirit of enquiry in society, by allowing meaningful and productive debate, and improving education systems

7. Phasing out religious education and teaching universal human values instead

8. Allowing free media – There must be absolutely no censorship of internet and media

9. Allowing complete freedom of speech and free and open discussion of religion, and permitting constructive criticism of religion in various platforms such as the media, and in universities.

10, Moving all nations towards democracy and democratically elected governments in due course

We must fight to gradually bring them into fruition. This can be done through collaborative and concerted action by scholars, and by putting pressure on governments and institutions over the next couple of decades. These alone can put the menace of religious violence to a complete end, and once and for all. The United nations can play a major role here too. We may need a Universal declaration of religious rights just as we have a Universal declaration of human rights, and a declaration on Linguistic rights. Religious rights are unfortunately not adequately represented by the UN charter. Content of religion must not conflict with religious rights and at the same time, religious rights must not conflict with universal declaration of human rights. These are the two cardinal principles we must abide by.  Countries must put pressure on other countries. This can indeed happen, and this must become one of the biggest movements of the twenty-first century. Remember how South Africa had to cave in when the international community put sanctions on the Apartheid regime?

We also believe that all these endeavours would produce intellectual revolutions of sorts particularly in the developing world. The first intellectual revolution from our perspective was writing, and its spread in old world civilizations such as Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley. The second intellectual revolution would refer to the flourishing of science in Ancient Greece, and its stellar contribution to the whole of human civilization. The third intellectual revolution followed the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in 1436, when knowledge could be widely disseminated. The fourth intellectual revolution coincided with the renaissance in Europe, while the fifth coincided with the European enlightenment. The sixth intellectual revolution coincided with the second industrial revolution of the late nineteenth and the early twentieth century, when people had plenty of time at their disposal. The seventh intellectual revolution occurred when decolonialization occurred, and this set the stage for new and creative intellectual thought in developing countries, though this would unfortunately be marred by dictatorship and socialism. The eighth intellectual revolution occurred due to globalization, the collapse of the Soviet bloc, and the rise of the internet. The ninth intellectual revolution would be attributed to the rise of smart phones and artificial intelligence, while the tenth we believe could be driven by the globalization of science the way we see it, and the emergence of intellectualism and enlightenments in underrepresented parts of the world.  Is anyone willing to take the bait?

 

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[1]Introducing Anthropology of Religion: Culture to the UltimateJack David Eller, Routledge, New York, 2014

[2] Audi, Robert, and Nicholas Wolterstorff. Religion in the Public Square: The Place of Religious Reasons in Political Debate. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield, 1997.

[3] Blumer, Herbert. 1962. “Society as Symbolic Interaction.” In Rose, Arnold M. (ed.), Human Behavior and Social Processes (pp. 179–192). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Co.

[4] Cultural Anthropology: Appreciating Cultural Diversity, Conrad Phillip Kottak, Fifteenth edition, McGraw Hill International Edition