Success in science: Is there a cultural misalignment in India and other developing countries?

Success in science: Is there a cultural misalignment in India and other developing countries?

The objective of this blog post is to discuss whether there is a cultural misalignment in India and other developing countries with respect to science and scientific development – i.e. whether people in developing countries, or at least a large number or a vast majority of them, harbor a scientific temper or a scientific temperament and one that is conducive to science. Let us begin this post with an interesting twist.  What is the geocentric theory?  The geocentric theory, also known as the Ptolemaic system, is an ancient cosmological model that places the Earth at the center of the universe, with the Sun, Moon, planets, and stars all orbiting it. 

This model was comprehensively developed by Ptolemy in the second century and remained the dominant view for centuries. Claudius Ptolemy was a Greco-Roman mathematician, astronomer, astrologer, geographer, and music theorist. He is remembered for his prodigious scientific output. However, most of his scientific ideas are outdated. At that time, it was not even known that stars were other suns. It was inconceivable to most that the earth went around the sun, and many believed the earth was flat. It must also be noted that the heliocentric model, with the Sun at the center, was only introduced by Copernicus in the sixteenth century even though Aristarchus of Samos and Philolaus believed in it much, much earlier. Claimed evidence for geocentrism where the apparent daily movement of celestial bodies around the Earth, and the feeling of Earth being stationary and unmoving. These observations were however subsequently falsified. The geocentric model, while no longer accepted by any scientist worth his salt, is a significant part of the history of astronomy and cosmology, marking the transition towards a more accurate understanding of the universe. 

The heliocentric theory, also known as the heliocentric model, is a model of the solar system where the Sun is placed at the center, and the Earth and other planets orbit around it. This theory stands in contrast to Geocentrism, which places the Earth at the center of the universe. Key aspects of the heliocentric theory are that the Sun is at the center of the solar system, the earth and planets orbit the sun, etc. It may be noted that Aristarchus of Samos was an ancient Greek astronomer and mathematician. He presented the first known heliocentric model that placed the Sun at the center of the universe, with the Earth revolving around the Sun once a year and rotating about its axis once a day. Most of his works are lost but are attested indirectly. Philolaus beleived that the Earth was not the center of the universe, and is credited with among the earliest known versions of heliocentrism. This is the theory that the Earth is not the center of the Universe, but rather that the Sun is. Philolaus discussed a Central Fire as the center of the universe and that spheres (including the Sun) revolved around it. However, Anaxagoras, a fifth century BC Greek philosopher, is not known for proposing a heliocentric model of the solar system. While he did propose innovative ideas about celestial bodies, including that the moon reflects sunlight and that the sun is a fiery mass larger than the Peloponnese, he did not suggest that the Earth revolves around the sun. His views on the sun and moon as physical objects rather than deities clashed with religious beliefs of the time, leading to accusations of impiety, according to some historical accounts. 

Let us now move forward to the Renaissance period. The Renaissance was a period of significant cultural and artistic flourishing in Europe, roughly spanning the 14th to 17th centuries. It followed the late Middle ages or the dark ages which were a nadir in western history. It's characterized by a renewed interest in classical antiquity, marking a transition from the medieval period to modernity. This revival led to advancements in art, literature, science, and mathematics, and saw the rise of humanism, a philosophical and intellectual movement emphasizing human potential and achievement. Major advances were made in science during this period. This was also a period of immense social change.

Some important scientists of the period were Nicolaus Copernicus who was a Renaissance polymath who formulated a model of the universe that placed the Sun rather than Earth at its center. As he was born in Poland, he escaped the persecution of the church. Tycho Brahe, was a Danish astronomer of the Renaissance, known for his accurate astronomical observations. He was also an astronomer, astrologer, and alchemist. He was the last major astronomer before the invention of the telescope and has been described as the greatest pre-telescopic astronomer.Johannes Kepler  was a German astronomer, mathematician, astrologer, natural philosopher and writer on music. He is a key figure in the 17th-century Scientific Revolution, best known for his laws of planetary motion. His books were Astronomia nova, Harmonice Mundi, and Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae, influencing among others Isaac Newton, thereby providing the foundations for the theory of gravitation. His varied work made Kepler one of the founders and fathers of modern astronomy, the scientific method, natural and modern science. Sir Isaac Newton   was an English polymath active as  mathematician, physicist, astronomer, alchemist, theologian, and author. Newton was a key figure in the Scientific Revolution and the Enlightenment that followed.  His book Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), first published in 1687, achieved the first great unification in physics and established classical mechanics.

He also famously discovered the law of gravity  as an apple fell on his head, or so the story goes. Newton also made seminal contributions to optics, and shares credit with German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for formulating infinitesimal calculus. However, Newton developed calculus many years before Leibniz. Galileo Galilei was an Italian astronomer, physicist and engineer, and a polymath. He was born in the city of Pisa, in Italy. Galileo has been called the father of observational astronomy, modern-era classical physics, the scientific method, and modern science. Galileo studied speed and velocity, gravity and free fall, the principle of relativity, inertia, projectile motion and also worked in applied science and technology. He built an improved telescope based on earlier work by Lippershey. Hans Lipperhey it may be noted, was a Dutch-German spectacle maker

The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a period of significant intellectual and cultural change in Europe, primarily during the eighteenth century. There was a renewed and heightened emphasis on reason during this period. It was characterized by a belief in the power of human reason to understand the world and improve society. The Enlightenment emphasized concepts like liberty, progress, tolerance, and the separation of church and state. The Enlightenment influenced various social and political movements, including the American and French Revolutions. Notable Enlightenment figures included Immanuel Kant, John Locke, Isaac Newton, and Voltaire. During the time of the enlightenment people’s attitudes towards science changed. Intellectuals became more scientifically inclined, though not always not the masses. Till the early nineteenth century, even astronomers had no idea of the vastness of the cosmos. Therefore, people ideas and mind-orientation can change with the passage of time as has been proven from time to time. Likewise, Japan only modernized and opened up to the west after the Meiji restoration which led to a great deal of westernization and the assimilation of new ideas.

There was a lot of intellectual curiosity too. Researchers also speculated on the origin of life, though inconclusively. There were two important theories of life, namely biogenesis and abiogenesis. The term biogenesis refers to all living things that come from other living things. This theory also gave rise to cell theory and other theories on the origin of life. The term abiogenesis refers to the theory that living things come from other non-living things such as mud, slime and dew. Notable experiments, such as Pasteur's swan-neck flask experiment, refuted the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that living organisms arise only from other living organisms, not from non-living matter. This experiment and others like Fransesco Redi's meat experiment supported the principle of biogenesis, which states that life only comes from life. Lazzaro Spallanzani's experiments involved boiling broth and sealing it, which prevented microbial growth. This suggested that microbes were not spontaneously generating in the broth but were entering from the outside. However, the origin of life itself has not be satisfactorily explained, and there are no overarching theories in this regard.

There was also an increasing challenge to the power of the Church. Corruption and dogma within church organizations manifested in various ways, including financial misappropriation, abuse of power, and the exploitation of vulnerable individuals. Issue of indulgences by the Church for atonement, or penitence was also noted, and gradually became widespread. Giordano Bruno was an Italian philosopher, poet, alchemist, astrologer, cosmological theorist, and esotericist. He is known for his cosmological theories, which conceptually extended to include the then-novel Copernican model. He proposed that the stars were distant suns surrounded by their own planets (exoplanets), and he raised the possibility that these planets might foster life of their own. For his supposed heretical beliefs, Bruno was burnt at the stake by the church in the year 1600.  Martin Luther was a German theologian, professor, pastor, and church reformer. Luther began the Protestant Reformation with the publication of his Ninety-Five Theses on October 31, 1517. In this publication, he attacked the Church's sale of indulgences. His movement gave rise to Protestantism as the third major force within Christianity, along with  Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy

Evolution led to a change in scientific thought and impacted the masses greatly by unleashing a scientific temper. Evolution, in a biological context, refers to the change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. This change occurs through processes like natural selection, genetic drift, and mutation, leading to increased adaptation of organisms to their environment and potentially resulting in the emergence of new species. Charles Darwin initially called this descent with modification Speciation and macromutation could also occur as it was eventually discovered. More recently evolution has been synthesized with genetics to give rise to more cogent and comprehensive explanations, and the field is still evolving.  

Jean-Baptiste Lamarck  was a French naturalist, biologist, academic, and soldier. He was an early proponent of the idea that biological evolution occurred and proceeded in accordance with natural laws. Jean-Baptiste Lamarck's theory of evolution, known as Lamarckism or the inheritance of acquired characteristics, proposed that organisms could pass on traits they acquired during their lifetime to their offspring. This meant that if an organism, like a giraffe, stretched its neck to reach higher branches, its offspring would inherit a longer neck. He also spoke about the use of disuse of inherited organs. While Lamarck's theory was influential in the early development of evolutionary thought, it is now largely discredited due to the lack of evidence supporting inheritance of acquired characteristics. 

Charles Darwin was an English naturalist, geologist, and biologist, widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all species of life have descended from a common ancestor is now generally accepted and considered a fundamental scientific concept. Charles Darwin wrote about twenty books, including the most famous book in biology, the Origin of Species. The books covered the natural history sciences, now called geology, palaeontology, zoology, botany, anthropology, psychology and evolutionary biology. The Origin of Species is the most important single book in the biological sciences, and its main ideas are well-supported by modern research.

Herbert Spencer was an English polymath and also  philosopher, psychologist, biologist, sociologist, and anthropologist. Herbert Spencer originated the expression "survival of the fittest", which he coined in Principles of Biology (1864) after reading Charles Darwin's 1859 book On the Origin of Species. Herbert Spencer is also famous for his doctrine of social Darwinism, which asserted that the principles of evolution, including natural selection, apply to human societies, social classes, and individuals as well as to biological species developing over geologic time. Alfred Russel Wallace was an English naturalist, explorer, geographer, anthropologist, and biologist. He independently conceived the theory of evolution through natural selection; his 1858 paper on the subject was published that year alongside extracts from Charles Darwin's earlier writings on the topic.

Charles Darwin's theories, particularly evolution by natural selection, initially faced resistance but eventually gained broad acceptance, including among some religious figures. While his work was groundbreaking and influential, it also sparked debate and controversy, particularly between scientific and religious communities. Darwin's ideas directly challenged the prevailing belief in a divine creation of species, leading to significant resistance from religious institutions and individuals. Darwin's theories also raised questions about human place in the natural world, leading to debates about the implications of evolution for human society and morality. Notable critics of Charles Darwin included Richard Owen, Samuel Wilberforce, St. George Jackson Mivart, and Fleeming Jenkin. By the time of Charles Darwin’s death however, it had gained popular acceptance in England even among some sections of the clergy. As scientific evidence for evolution grew and more research supported Darwin's theories, the initial resistance also began to wane. By the time of Darwin's death, his theories had gained widespread acceptance, even among some religious figures and institutions. This clearly shows and demonstrates that people’s ideas can change with the passage of time. Darwin's work laid the foundation for modern evolutionary theory, significantly shaping the fields of biology, genetics, and other scientific disciplines. Darwin's ideas have had a profound impact on various aspects of culture, including literature, philosophy, and social thought. 

 

Gregor Mendel, through his work on pea plants, discovered the fundamental laws of inheritance. He deduced that genes come in pairs and are inherited as distinct units, one from each parent.Gregor Mendel's laws of inheritance, established through his experiments with pea plants, form the foundation of modern genetics. They are: the Law of Dominance, the Law of Segregation, and the Law of Independent Assortment. He died in obscurity partly because he was silent about is work and partly because he published in German. His work was rediscovered by Carl Correns, Von Tshermak, and Hugo Vries.

 

The discovery of extrasolar planets since 1992 has also proved to be epoch making and earth shattering. An exoplanet, also known as an extrasolar planet, is a planet that orbits a star outside of our solar system. These planets are not part of our solar system and orbit stars other than our Sun. Exoplanets are detected using indirect methods such as the transit method due to their faintness compared to their host stars. Only few have been directly observed. First discovery of a planet around a pulsar star occurred in 1992, and around a main sequence star in 1995. As of 2025, over 5800 extrasolar planets have been discovered. The first discoveries were made by, Michel Mayor and Didier Queloz of the University of Geneva. Indian origin scientist Dr Nikku Madhusudhan also claims to have found evidence of life some 120 light years away, though this is still disputed.

 

Ideologies can damage science, including scientific ideologies. We had written extensively about this previously. Intellectual Marxism is on the decline, and though this might be good news, we need robust twenty-first century intellectualism. Hindutva has raised its ugly head, and this is highly troubling and disconcerting. Hindutvavaadins have their own gross misrepresentation of events much like Marxist historians or Dravidian nationalists. We have the Vedic Indus theory, and the Out of India theory, for example. Hindutva groups must think again and act in favour of the nation and science. Hindutva groups must think again and act in favour of Indian science. They must understand that they damage national interests too. There is no emphasis on objectivity – only ideology. Indians can change in one generation. All it requires is a generational change in the author’s opinion. The next generation can be more scientifically inclined. We had written about structured apperception techniques for sociocultrual change, and eureka and mini eureka points, among a vast plethora of other allied and related topics. India is already the third largest publisher of research publications. Quality of Indian publications however lags behind the west, and this must improve and change with the times.

Teaching innovation in schools is a must. Teaching creative thinking in schools is a must. Focusing on concepts and application rather than rote learning is a must. Refer all our previous videos and papers. As such there is no cultural misalignment. Hinduism is also a diverse religion, and accommodates many thoughts, and ideas. We can bring about change, and bring it in real fast. This only required proper formation and gestation of concepts, and implementing them properly and in true spirit of the game. However, it is absurd to claim that no change in required as some Hindutva groups have told the Author. Change is indeed required, as even educated people believe in myths and superstitions, and historiography and other fields of social sciences are in dire need of an overhaul. Readers may read all our publications in the interests of scientific progress and common sense, as we have justified our assertions comprehensively and unequivocally to say the least.