Towards a Vijnana or a Vaignanika school of Hinduism

Hinduism is a truly diverse religion, and has no founder. It therefore stands to reason and logical thought that Hinduism can easily be interpreted as being wholly compatible with science. This is unlike many other religions that originated from a single text, and are therefore, sometimes seen as being in conflict with science. It also stands to reason that this is the definition of Hinduism that we must seek to project if Hinduism is to thrive, flourish, and prosper in future. Indian science took off in a big way in early ancient times, and Indian innovation can be traced back to Mehrgarh, a pre-Indus valley civilization site, now in Pakistan. Harappans developed metallurgy, irrigation, agriculture, architecture, their own form of writing besides other inventions and innovations such as weights and measures. Alphabetic scripts and iron-making took off in Post-Harappan cultures in the Gangetic plains, where there was some continuity with Harappan cultures, and Ancient Indians made contributions to mathematics, astronomy and medicine too. In the fifth century BC, the grammarian Panini made important contributions to the study of Sanskrit grammar. An account of Ancient India is provided by Megasthenes in his book Indica which is now considered to be lost. Indians also contributed greatly to philosophy and intellectual thought as evidenced by the Upanishads and Buddhism as well. In sum, Indian philosophical traditions include both orthodox (or Astika) systems which include the Nyaya, Samkhya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa (or Mimamsa), Yoga and Vedanta schools of philosophy, and unorthodox (or Nastika) systems, examples being Buddhist and Jaina traditions. Ancient Indian scholars and intellectuals included Bhaskara, Varahamihira, Sushruta, Bramhagupta, Aryabhatta and Bihana.

 

Let us now attempt a somewhat more detailed narrative. The Indus Valley Civilization or the IVC in short, also commonly, widely and popularly known as the Harappan Civilization, was a large Bronze Age civilization which flourished in the northwestern part of South Asia, from 3300 BC to 1300 BC, though its mature period was between 2600 BC to 1900 BC. Along with Ancient Egypt and Ancient Mesopotamia, it was one of the oldest civilizations in the world, and spatially the most spread out. This civilization was an ancient river valley civilization, and flourished along the course of the Indus river and the now dry Ghagra Hakkar river, sometimes also known as the Saraswathi river.  The civilizations most important sites, Mohenjodaro and Harappa were excavated in the 1920’s, though its ruins were noted as early as the middle of the nineteenth century. The cities of the Indus valley civilization were well-planned, had baked brick houses and multi storey tenaments, underground drainage and sewerage systems, external water supply systems, irrigation systems etc, besides metallurgy, and long-distance maritime trade. Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may have had over fifty thousand individuals, and the civilization may have contained between one and five million individuals during its peak.

 

The people of the Indus civilization also achieved an impressive accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. The people of the Indus valley civilization are also believed to have developed an elaborate system of weights and measures based on cubical stone weights, with a fairly high level of standardization, though differences from region to region were also noted. These weights and measures were believed to have been used in trade, commerce, and construction. According to the site Harappa.com, Harappan weights conformed to a standard Harappan binary weight system that was used in almost all the settlements. The smallest weight in this series is thought to be 0.856 grams and the most common weight weighs approximately 13.7 grams, in a 1:16 ratio. However, decimal increases were noted in case of the larger weights. Chert weights were in multiples of 28 grams, similar to the English imperial ounce, or the Greek unia. Bricks were in the ratio of 4:2:1. It is obvious therefore, that Harappans had some knowledge of geometry.

Ivory rulers were also used. Harappans also were expert metalworkers, and used a wide variety of metals such as copper, bronze, tin, silver and gold, besides other types of precious stones. They also produced and developed a wide variety of ceramics. They also developed new techniques in metal working, and could even test the purity of gold. Interestingly, they also developed polished metal mirrors, and used furnaces, kilns and hearths to attain controlled temperatures of several hundred degrees centigrade. The Harappans also built docks and ports such as Lotha, and elites even traded with West Asia. They also therefore possessed knowledge of the tides and ocean currents. Complex canal systems were also used for irrigation, along with dams. Farms were ploughed used oxen and ploughs.

In Vedic India, we have evidence of use of basic geometrical concepts, as evidenced from the Shatapata Brahmana, a text published in the ninth century before Christ, and from the works of Baudhyana who lived in the eighth century before Christ. Large numbers and relatively complex calculations were also being routinely employed and used. By the time of the Yajur Veda which is the last Veda, numbers as high as ten to the power of eighteen are believed to have been used. It is even claimed that concepts similar to Pythogorean statements were used, and some formulas were provided by Baudhayana, and others. The earliest Indian astronomical text was the Vedanga Jyotisa and and dated back from 700 to 600 BCE, though it was perhaps only compiled in the final centuries of the pre-Christian era, according to more conservative scholars like Witzel, and others. This text contained both astronomical calculations, as well as calendrical studies. The Sushruta Samhita was an ancient Sanskrit medical treatise penned by Sushruta. It describes several medical illnesses, and proposes treatments for them, including treatments from plant and animal sources. It also contains descriptions of different forms of surgeries. Additionally, the Atharva Veda also contains a description of some medical treatments. Metal currency was also minted in ancient India by the fifth century before Christ. Chariots were also used in ancient India, and these have been archaeologically attested since 1500 BC in places such as Sinauli. The Harappan did not know the use of iron; however, the use of iron is attested in the Gangetic plains from around 1800 BC, implying a complex acculturation process.

Some other scholarly fields of study such as linguistics also flourished in Ancient India. During the fifth century before Christ, the grammarian and philologist Panini  made several advances in the fields of phonetics, phonology, and morphology. He also wrote the first treatise on Sanksrit grammar. The most important of Panini's works, the Astadhyayi is a grammar that details the features of the Sanskrit language. Though this largely deals with classical Sanskrit, the text also describes some characteristics of the much older Vedic Sanskrit. The Tamil grammar Tholkappiyam was penned by Tholkappiyar in circa 500 BC.  Nalanda was an early centre of learning and was believed to have been founded around 2000-1500 years ago, or so. It ruins occupy a total areas of fourteen hectares, and scholars from different parts of the subcontinent may have come here to study. Scholars such as Aryabhatta are also believed to have taught there. Taxila is believed to have been another centre of learning. This is believed to have been around 2500 years old.

An account of Ancient India is provided by Megasthenes in his book Indica which is now considered to be lost. Indians also contributed greatly to philosophy and intellectual thought as evidenced by the Upanishads and Buddhism as well. In sum, Indian philosophical traditions include both orthodox (or Astika) systems which include the Nyaya, Samkhya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa (or Mimamsa), Yoga and Vedanta schools of philosophy, and unorthodox (or Nastika) systems, examples being Buddhist and Jaina traditions. The Mimimsa school of thought employed rational and critical thought and investigative analysis. The Charvaka school of thought did not believe in the existence of God, or a supernatural entity. Ancient Indian scholars and intellectuals included Bhaskara, Varahamihira, Sushruta, Bramhagupta, Aryabhatta and Bihana.

Sushruta was the listed author of the Sushruta Samhita, a treatise that is considered to be one of the most important surviving ancient treatises on medicine and is considered a foundational text of Ayurveda. He probably lived in Kasi, Benares, or Varanasi one of the Mahajanapadas around 800 to 700 BC. Baudhayana who lived around the same period, i.e. 800 BC to 700 BC is credited with having made many important contributions to mathematics.  He is also often credited for authoring the earliest Sulba Sutras. Charaka was another important physician who lived in the fourth century before Christ probably in Kashmir. He is the author of Charaka Samhita which is one of the foundational medical texts from Ancient India. Likewise, Agnivesha may have also contributed to Ayurveda at an earlier date, but this is disputed.  

Brahmagupta who lived in the seventh century after Christ, was an important Indian mathematician and astronomer. He was the author of two very early works on mathematics and astronomy, namely, the Brahmasphuta siddhanta , and the Khandakhadyaka . Brahmagupta also is believed to have been the first to describe gravity, and used the Sanskrit term gurutvakarsanam to describe it. Bhaskara II, was another important mathematician and astronomer from the twelfth century. He is known was his work Siddhanta Shiromani which was written in 1150 AD, and is a treatise on algebra. He must be distinguished from Bhaskara I who lived in the seventh century. Vaisesika Sutra or Kanada Sutra was authored by the philosopher Kanada before the second century BC, and was an important philosophical and scientific treatise. Nagarjuna was an important Buddhist philosopher of the second century after Christ. Varahamihira was an important philosopher who lived in Ujjain in the sixth century after Christ. He is known for works such as Pancha-siddhantika, Brhat-samhita, and Brihajjataka. Chanakya of the fourth century before Christ was a political strategist and a well-read polymath. He is known for his work Arthasastra. 

Aryabhata, or Aryabhata I was another extraordinary and brilliant astronomer and mathematician that India has produced. He lived in the fifth century, and is sometimes called the “Father of Indian Mathematics.” His seminal work, Aryabhatiya, introduced the concept of zero, decimal notation, and a precise approximation of the value of pi. He also furnished calculations of the planetary positions, eclipses, and the rotation of the Earth. Aryabhatta II was less influential and lived in the tenth century. He authored the book Maha-Siddhanta. In the Seleucid era and the Sassanid period, there were cross-cultural exchanges between India, Persia and Greece, and a flow of ideas often took place between disparate geographical territories. In the twelfth century, Kalhana’s Rajatarangini gives a detailed account of irrigation networks and hydraulic engineering. Let us now examine the various schools of Hindu philosophy.

We also had astika and nastika schools of philosophy in ancient India, depending on whether their followers accepted the authority of the Vedas or not. The Vaisheshika school was one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy in ancient India. In its early stages, the Vaisesika was an independent philosophy with its own concepts of metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and ethics. Over a period in time, the Vaisesika system became similar in its philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions and soteriology to the Nyaya school of Hinduism, but retained its difference in epistemology and metaphysics. This school of thought spoke about different forms of knowledge at great length. It spoke about direct observation, perception, postulation, and inference as well. This school also provided insights into naturalism. For example, it spoke about paramanu or atoms and other concepts. It also postulated that reality comprised earth, water, air, fire, and space.

The Charvaka or the Lokayata school, is an ancient school of Indian materialism. It is considered as one example of the atheistic schools in the Ancient Indian philosophies. According to this school, direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference are the proper sources of knowledge. This school embraces philosophical skepticism and rejects ritualism. It was a well-attested belief system in ancient India. Brihaspati, a philosopher, is traditionally referred to as the founder of Charvaka or Lokāyata philosophy. Charvaka developed during the Hindu reformation period of the first millennium before Christ, after the emergence of Buddhism.  The Nyaya school, which literally meaning justice, rules,  method or judgment, is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy. Nyaya's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were the systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology. This school accepts perception, inference, comparison and analogy as reliable means of knowledge.  The Ajnana school was one of the nastika or heterodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy. This school was the ancient school of radical Indian skepticism. This school conflates greatly with Buddhist and Jaina traditions. Sanjaya Belatthiputta was one of the major proponents of this school of thought.

Mīmamsa is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation" and refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic texts. This tradition is also known as Purva-Mimaṁsa because of its focus on the earlier Vedic texts dealing with ritual actions, and similarly as Karma-Mimaṁsa due to its focus on ritual action or karma. It is one of six Vedic "affirming" schools of Hindu philosophy. This tradition has both newer and older versions, as well as several sub schools. This school also contributed greatly to linguistics by analyzing language deeply, and influenced other schools. The vijnana or vaignanika school (the name is just a handy moniker we must coin) must follow scientific method or scientific methodology at all times. It must also embrace innovation, creativity, and scientific progress. It must also be in tune with modern realities, and with modern times. Only then can Hinduism thrive, prosper, and flourish.