The five pillars of our movement in a nutshell

 We had founded the “Institute for the study of the globalization of science” (ISGOS) in 2017, which was registered in India as “The globalization of science trust”. We had also launched the think tank “Scholars and intellectuals for mankind”, (SCHIMA) subsequently. The following are the five pillars of our movement in a nutshell:

1.       Revitalizing various fields of the social sciences for the twenty-first century and beyond by moving them beyond colonialism and imperialism: This is the reason why we had published over sixty core papers, and six books all of which are online.  

2.       Creating intellectual revolutions in various parts of the developing world on the lines of the renaissance and enlightenment that took place in Europe a couple of centuries ago. We had published a paper on twenty-first century intellectualism in 2023. In addition refer to our various other papers which contribute to this mission.

3.       Rearming pedagogy and education systems for the twenty-first century and beyond. We had published papers on anthropological pedagogy, and the sociology of science, besides a book on rebooting and revitalizing pedagogy for the twenty-first century pedagogy.

4.       Modulating the role of religion in the twenty-first century and beyond through better education, social sciences research techniques, and a concerted effort among governments. Refer to our book on the role played by religion in the twenty-first century and beyond.

Developing bottom up developing models for the developing world which would contribute to our other objectives as well. Refer to our papers on anthropological economics, and our book on economic developmental economics as well. 

Is Hindutva bringing Hinduism a bad name, and harming India’s interests? Do we need post-Hindutva schools of thought immediately?

 

Hindutva is a political ideology that also provides a basis for Hindu nationalism and the desire to establish Hindu hegemony within India. It is often associated with Hinduness, and the state or the quality of being a Hindu with an interplay between cultural, religious, and national identities. This ideology traces its roots to the ideals of Vinayak Damodar Savarkar in 1922 in reaction to the pan-Islamic Khilafat movement, and due to fears that Hindu culture and Hindu values were being trampled upon by colonialists. It was however used much earlier, in the 1890’s by Chandranath Basu, and others. It has  also been used extensively for political and non-political purposes by the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), the Vishva Hindu Parishad (VHP), the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) and other similar or affiliated organisations,  which are collectively referred to as the Sangh Parivar. The RSS had been founded by Keshav Baliram Hedgewar in 1925 who also operationalized most of its activities at a grassroots level. For Savarkar, in his work “Hindutva: Who Is a Hindu?”, Hindutva is an inclusive term of everything Indic. The three essentials of Hindutva in Savarkar's definition were the common nation (rashtra), common race (jati), and common culture or civilisation (sanskriti).  Savarkar had also made a clear distinction between Hinduism and Hindutva, that they are not same things as Hindutva does not concern religion or rituals but the basis of India's national character. Savarkar himself was not overly religious, and his ideas bordered on atheism.

Hindutva proponents also seek to uphold Hindu values, and Hindu dharma. Some Hindutva proponents even go to the extent of claiming that only adherents of Indian religions are true nationals, and Christians and Muslims can be called Indians only if they accept Indian culture in toto. There are varying levels of intensity within Hindutva, though it is indeed true that extreme versions border on fascism. Many Hindutva proponents have however mellowed down, and many have even begun to adopt a much softer stance towards Muslims and other minorities. Critics of the Hindutva ideology however allege that the movement bears some resemblance to European fascist movements that were common in the early part of the twentieth century. It is therefore a form of right-wing ethno nationalism, in tune with similar movements in other parts of the world, they allege. Some critics also allege that the term Hindu as it describes a religion is a relatively more recently constructed term in reference to a geography, and is partially foreign in origin. It is also a nebulous and a hazy concept, and is difficult to define with any degree of precision.

According to Arvind Sharma, a noted scholar of Hinduism, Hindutva has not been a "static and monolithic concept", rather its meaning and context has gradually changed over time. Its early formulation incorporated the racism and nationalism concepts prevalent in Europe during the first half of the twentieth century, and culture was in part designed on the basis of the concept of "shared blood and race". Savarkar and his Hindutva colleagues also eventually adopted the social Darwinism theories that were common in the 1930s. After India’s independence, according to Arvind Sharma, the concept has begun to suffer from a high degree of ambiguity and its understanding has been aligned on "two different axes" – one of religion versus culture, another of nation versus state. In general, the Hindutva thought among many Indians has "tried to align itself with the culture and nation" axes. Therefore, there are extreme variations in the concept of the term today, right from the innocuous to the radical, and even Hindutva proponents are sometimes not clear of the boundaries and the precise connotations and implications of the term. Some Hindutva proponents are harmful and fascist. Some others are mere mischief makers. Some are of course, utterly innocuous, and may only be swimming with the tide.

There are also allegations in some quarters that Hindutva is a form of Brahminism and neo-Brahminism associated with Aryanism. According to Chetan Bhatt, Hindutva is nothing but a “dense cluster of ideologies of primordialism”, and some concepts associated with orientalism and romanticism also lent their weight and credence to Hindutva. These statements and assertions may be partly true. While the RSS has actively written against the caste system, and even promoted inter caste dining in the 1920’s, (the RSS is open to all members), it is indeed true that Brahmins continue to be its most enthusiastic supporters.  Hindutva groups have also attempted to rewrite history infamously in the 2000’s drawing inspiration from the fact that the historical models prevalent then, were indeed obsolete. Their justification was also partly based on the biased interpretation of Indian history by some colonialists. They however, went on to fallaciously emphasize Brahminical versions of India. History. Some kind of an extremely innocuous form of Hindutva may be tolerable, but extremely virulent versions must be chasticized. Hindutva groups must not:

1.       Misrepresent history to suit a narrow version of Hinduism, namely Brahminsm, or promote other altered forms of history.

2.       Must not interfere with the inculcation of a scientific temper, and the inculcation of scientific values. Also refer to our works on twenty-first century intellectualism. Most Indians unfortunately do not possess a scientific temper even to this day.

3.       Must not promote hatred against other religious groups; however, all religions are open to criticism. There must be a spirit of religious harmony at all times.

4.       Must not discriminate between people of different faiths.

5.       Must not seek to override or overturn the constitution, and values of fair justice.

6.       Religious values must not be allowed to override universal human values.

7.       Must not otherwise, and in any other way or fashion, interfere with internal or international peace and harmony. Indian and Hindu culture, values and traditions may be allowed to flourish and thrive if they do not trample upon other people’s rights.  

If all these ideas are being compromised with, we need to think twice, and think again. It is time to marshall all our resources to ruminate and ponder how post-Hindutva schools of thought can be articulated and concretized. After all, the interests of society must always reign supreme, and must override all other considerations at all times.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Towards a Vijnana or a Vaignanika school of Hinduism

Hinduism is a truly diverse religion, and has no founder. It therefore stands to reason and logical thought that Hinduism can easily be interpreted as being wholly compatible with science. This is unlike many other religions that originated from a single text, and are therefore, sometimes seen as being in conflict with science. It also stands to reason that this is the definition of Hinduism that we must seek to project if Hinduism is to thrive, flourish, and prosper in future. Indian science took off in a big way in early ancient times, and Indian innovation can be traced back to Mehrgarh, a pre-Indus valley civilization site, now in Pakistan. Harappans developed metallurgy, irrigation, agriculture, architecture, their own form of writing besides other inventions and innovations such as weights and measures. Alphabetic scripts and iron-making took off in Post-Harappan cultures in the Gangetic plains, where there was some continuity with Harappan cultures, and Ancient Indians made contributions to mathematics, astronomy and medicine too. In the fifth century BC, the grammarian Panini made important contributions to the study of Sanskrit grammar. An account of Ancient India is provided by Megasthenes in his book Indica which is now considered to be lost. Indians also contributed greatly to philosophy and intellectual thought as evidenced by the Upanishads and Buddhism as well. In sum, Indian philosophical traditions include both orthodox (or Astika) systems which include the Nyaya, Samkhya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa (or Mimamsa), Yoga and Vedanta schools of philosophy, and unorthodox (or Nastika) systems, examples being Buddhist and Jaina traditions. Ancient Indian scholars and intellectuals included Bhaskara, Varahamihira, Sushruta, Bramhagupta, Aryabhatta and Bihana.

 

Let us now attempt a somewhat more detailed narrative. The Indus Valley Civilization or the IVC in short, also commonly, widely and popularly known as the Harappan Civilization, was a large Bronze Age civilization which flourished in the northwestern part of South Asia, from 3300 BC to 1300 BC, though its mature period was between 2600 BC to 1900 BC. Along with Ancient Egypt and Ancient Mesopotamia, it was one of the oldest civilizations in the world, and spatially the most spread out. This civilization was an ancient river valley civilization, and flourished along the course of the Indus river and the now dry Ghagra Hakkar river, sometimes also known as the Saraswathi river.  The civilizations most important sites, Mohenjodaro and Harappa were excavated in the 1920’s, though its ruins were noted as early as the middle of the nineteenth century. The cities of the Indus valley civilization were well-planned, had baked brick houses and multi storey tenaments, underground drainage and sewerage systems, external water supply systems, irrigation systems etc, besides metallurgy, and long-distance maritime trade. Mohenjo-daro and Harappa may have had over fifty thousand individuals, and the civilization may have contained between one and five million individuals during its peak.

 

The people of the Indus civilization also achieved an impressive accuracy in measuring length, mass, and time. The people of the Indus valley civilization are also believed to have developed an elaborate system of weights and measures based on cubical stone weights, with a fairly high level of standardization, though differences from region to region were also noted. These weights and measures were believed to have been used in trade, commerce, and construction. According to the site Harappa.com, Harappan weights conformed to a standard Harappan binary weight system that was used in almost all the settlements. The smallest weight in this series is thought to be 0.856 grams and the most common weight weighs approximately 13.7 grams, in a 1:16 ratio. However, decimal increases were noted in case of the larger weights. Chert weights were in multiples of 28 grams, similar to the English imperial ounce, or the Greek unia. Bricks were in the ratio of 4:2:1. It is obvious therefore, that Harappans had some knowledge of geometry.

Ivory rulers were also used. Harappans also were expert metalworkers, and used a wide variety of metals such as copper, bronze, tin, silver and gold, besides other types of precious stones. They also produced and developed a wide variety of ceramics. They also developed new techniques in metal working, and could even test the purity of gold. Interestingly, they also developed polished metal mirrors, and used furnaces, kilns and hearths to attain controlled temperatures of several hundred degrees centigrade. The Harappans also built docks and ports such as Lotha, and elites even traded with West Asia. They also therefore possessed knowledge of the tides and ocean currents. Complex canal systems were also used for irrigation, along with dams. Farms were ploughed used oxen and ploughs.

In Vedic India, we have evidence of use of basic geometrical concepts, as evidenced from the Shatapata Brahmana, a text published in the ninth century before Christ, and from the works of Baudhyana who lived in the eighth century before Christ. Large numbers and relatively complex calculations were also being routinely employed and used. By the time of the Yajur Veda which is the last Veda, numbers as high as ten to the power of eighteen are believed to have been used. It is even claimed that concepts similar to Pythogorean statements were used, and some formulas were provided by Baudhayana, and others. The earliest Indian astronomical text was the Vedanga Jyotisa and and dated back from 700 to 600 BCE, though it was perhaps only compiled in the final centuries of the pre-Christian era, according to more conservative scholars like Witzel, and others. This text contained both astronomical calculations, as well as calendrical studies. The Sushruta Samhita was an ancient Sanskrit medical treatise penned by Sushruta. It describes several medical illnesses, and proposes treatments for them, including treatments from plant and animal sources. It also contains descriptions of different forms of surgeries. Additionally, the Atharva Veda also contains a description of some medical treatments. Metal currency was also minted in ancient India by the fifth century before Christ. Chariots were also used in ancient India, and these have been archaeologically attested since 1500 BC in places such as Sinauli. The Harappan did not know the use of iron; however, the use of iron is attested in the Gangetic plains from around 1800 BC, implying a complex acculturation process.

Some other scholarly fields of study such as linguistics also flourished in Ancient India. During the fifth century before Christ, the grammarian and philologist Panini  made several advances in the fields of phonetics, phonology, and morphology. He also wrote the first treatise on Sanksrit grammar. The most important of Panini's works, the Astadhyayi is a grammar that details the features of the Sanskrit language. Though this largely deals with classical Sanskrit, the text also describes some characteristics of the much older Vedic Sanskrit. The Tamil grammar Tholkappiyam was penned by Tholkappiyar in circa 500 BC.  Nalanda was an early centre of learning and was believed to have been founded around 2000-1500 years ago, or so. It ruins occupy a total areas of fourteen hectares, and scholars from different parts of the subcontinent may have come here to study. Scholars such as Aryabhatta are also believed to have taught there. Taxila is believed to have been another centre of learning. This is believed to have been around 2500 years old.

An account of Ancient India is provided by Megasthenes in his book Indica which is now considered to be lost. Indians also contributed greatly to philosophy and intellectual thought as evidenced by the Upanishads and Buddhism as well. In sum, Indian philosophical traditions include both orthodox (or Astika) systems which include the Nyaya, Samkhya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa (or Mimamsa), Yoga and Vedanta schools of philosophy, and unorthodox (or Nastika) systems, examples being Buddhist and Jaina traditions. The Mimimsa school of thought employed rational and critical thought and investigative analysis. The Charvaka school of thought did not believe in the existence of God, or a supernatural entity. Ancient Indian scholars and intellectuals included Bhaskara, Varahamihira, Sushruta, Bramhagupta, Aryabhatta and Bihana.

Sushruta was the listed author of the Sushruta Samhita, a treatise that is considered to be one of the most important surviving ancient treatises on medicine and is considered a foundational text of Ayurveda. He probably lived in Kasi, Benares, or Varanasi one of the Mahajanapadas around 800 to 700 BC. Baudhayana who lived around the same period, i.e. 800 BC to 700 BC is credited with having made many important contributions to mathematics.  He is also often credited for authoring the earliest Sulba Sutras. Charaka was another important physician who lived in the fourth century before Christ probably in Kashmir. He is the author of Charaka Samhita which is one of the foundational medical texts from Ancient India. Likewise, Agnivesha may have also contributed to Ayurveda at an earlier date, but this is disputed.  

Brahmagupta who lived in the seventh century after Christ, was an important Indian mathematician and astronomer. He was the author of two very early works on mathematics and astronomy, namely, the Brahmasphuta siddhanta , and the Khandakhadyaka . Brahmagupta also is believed to have been the first to describe gravity, and used the Sanskrit term gurutvakarsanam to describe it. Bhaskara II, was another important mathematician and astronomer from the twelfth century. He is known was his work Siddhanta Shiromani which was written in 1150 AD, and is a treatise on algebra. He must be distinguished from Bhaskara I who lived in the seventh century. Vaisesika Sutra or Kanada Sutra was authored by the philosopher Kanada before the second century BC, and was an important philosophical and scientific treatise. Nagarjuna was an important Buddhist philosopher of the second century after Christ. Varahamihira was an important philosopher who lived in Ujjain in the sixth century after Christ. He is known for works such as Pancha-siddhantika, Brhat-samhita, and Brihajjataka. Chanakya of the fourth century before Christ was a political strategist and a well-read polymath. He is known for his work Arthasastra. 

Aryabhata, or Aryabhata I was another extraordinary and brilliant astronomer and mathematician that India has produced. He lived in the fifth century, and is sometimes called the “Father of Indian Mathematics.” His seminal work, Aryabhatiya, introduced the concept of zero, decimal notation, and a precise approximation of the value of pi. He also furnished calculations of the planetary positions, eclipses, and the rotation of the Earth. Aryabhatta II was less influential and lived in the tenth century. He authored the book Maha-Siddhanta. In the Seleucid era and the Sassanid period, there were cross-cultural exchanges between India, Persia and Greece, and a flow of ideas often took place between disparate geographical territories. In the twelfth century, Kalhana’s Rajatarangini gives a detailed account of irrigation networks and hydraulic engineering. Let us now examine the various schools of Hindu philosophy.

We also had astika and nastika schools of philosophy in ancient India, depending on whether their followers accepted the authority of the Vedas or not. The Vaisheshika school was one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy in ancient India. In its early stages, the Vaisesika was an independent philosophy with its own concepts of metaphysics, epistemology, logic, and ethics. Over a period in time, the Vaisesika system became similar in its philosophical procedures, ethical conclusions and soteriology to the Nyaya school of Hinduism, but retained its difference in epistemology and metaphysics. This school of thought spoke about different forms of knowledge at great length. It spoke about direct observation, perception, postulation, and inference as well. This school also provided insights into naturalism. For example, it spoke about paramanu or atoms and other concepts. It also postulated that reality comprised earth, water, air, fire, and space.

The Charvaka or the Lokayata school, is an ancient school of Indian materialism. It is considered as one example of the atheistic schools in the Ancient Indian philosophies. According to this school, direct perception, empiricism, and conditional inference are the proper sources of knowledge. This school embraces philosophical skepticism and rejects ritualism. It was a well-attested belief system in ancient India. Brihaspati, a philosopher, is traditionally referred to as the founder of Charvaka or Lokāyata philosophy. Charvaka developed during the Hindu reformation period of the first millennium before Christ, after the emergence of Buddhism.  The Nyaya school, which literally meaning justice, rules,  method or judgment, is one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy. Nyaya's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy were the systematic development of the theory of logic, methodology, and its treatises on epistemology. This school accepts perception, inference, comparison and analogy as reliable means of knowledge.  The Ajnana school was one of the nastika or heterodox schools of ancient Indian philosophy. This school was the ancient school of radical Indian skepticism. This school conflates greatly with Buddhist and Jaina traditions. Sanjaya Belatthiputta was one of the major proponents of this school of thought.

Mīmamsa is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation" and refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic texts. This tradition is also known as Purva-Mimaṁsa because of its focus on the earlier Vedic texts dealing with ritual actions, and similarly as Karma-Mimaṁsa due to its focus on ritual action or karma. It is one of six Vedic "affirming" schools of Hindu philosophy. This tradition has both newer and older versions, as well as several sub schools. This school also contributed greatly to linguistics by analyzing language deeply, and influenced other schools. The vijnana or vaignanika school (the name is just a handy moniker we must coin) must follow scientific method or scientific methodology at all times. It must also embrace innovation, creativity, and scientific progress. It must also be in tune with modern realities, and with modern times. Only then can Hinduism thrive, prosper, and flourish.  

Towards an enlightened and progressive interpretation of Hinduism

Hinduism has a truly hoary past. It has often been described as a way of life. It is a truly diverse religion, encompassing many different types of beliefs. It has no founder and is a geographical expression. Even though the term Hinduism is of fairly recent origin, and was probably first used in reference to the Indus river by Alberuni in the Tenth century, and the Hindu religion is in some respects the oldest on earth. Moreover, elements of what we know as Hinduism are older and may even date to the Stone Age. However, older names such Arya or noble in opposition to the Dasas were or the Mlechas and Sanathana Dharma were used before the term Hinduism came into use. Hinduism is both a hierarchical and polycentric religion. It is hierarchical because of the caste system and polycentric because there can be no centralized authority. It is also diverse along geographical and ethnic lines with institutionalized and inbuilt discrimination mechanisms and with a bewildering array of belief systems. 

However, most historical models to study Hinduism are badly outdated. Hinduism is not centered around the caste system alone as imagined by many scholars. In many period of Hindu history, and among many communities, the caste system was either non-existent or extremely feeble. Hinduism is so complex and diverse, that there are many philosophical systems such as the Charvaka school which do not believe in the idea of God, a soul, or an afterlife. 

The roots of Hinduism lie in the Indus Valley Civilization which encompassed most of North-Western India. The precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization arose in Baluchistan in Mehrgarh in 7000 BC but we know little about its religion. The ruins of the Indus Valley Civilization were first described by Charles Masson in 1866. There were discovered when a railway track was being built. The first Indus seal was described by Alexander Cunningham in 1873 and further excavations were carried out by Fleet in 1907. The civilization came to light after major excavations in the 1920’s by Daya Ram Daya Ram Sahni, Madho Sarup Vats, RD Banerji and others. Animals are widely represented in the Indus seals, but it is unclear whether they are religious symbols. Marshall in 1931 in the publication “Mohenjodaro and the Indus Valley civilization” suggested that one of the deities was an archaic version of the God Siva. The cult of the mother was also widely used in the Indus valley. Another famous deity was the Lord of the Beasts. Some have also claimed that the Great Bath of Mohenjodaro which was forty feet by twenty three feet wide was used for ritual bathing. In the 1990’s a Swastika symbol came to light, and this is associated with later Hinduism. Some figurines depicting the Indian greeting ‘Namaste’ have also been claimed in addition to Vedic fire altars from Kalibangan, though these manifest towards the end of the Indus Valley Civilization. 

In all probability, the Hindu religion arose as a result of a complex process of multi-stage acculturation between major and minor religious groups residing in the region. According to the old theory, the Aryans entered India in 1500 BC, but this is disputed. We had explained in our previous papers why this may have been unlikely. There may have been peaceful migrations, and migration may have happened earlier than previously assumed. Thus the transformation of the Indus valley to Post-Harappan India may have been a complex process. Aryan culture appears to have peaked around 1500 BC, its formation having been aided by inputs from Ancient Iran from 1700 BC. Hinduism was thus a melange and a fusion of various streams of beliefs, which included Aryan, Harappan beliefs in addition to other minor beliefs of North India. Thus, Proto-Siva may have been absorbed into the Hindu pantheon as the God of destruction, Yama, another perhaps less known deity of the north as the God of death: much of this however, remains a conjecture. The Rig Veda, the oldest and the most archaic among the Vedas was compiled in 1500 BC. It was largely passed down orally. The other Vedas were Sama Veda, Yajur Veda, and Atharva Veda. Early Upanishads were the Brihadaryanaka Upanishad, Chandogya Upanishad, Kaushitaki Upanishad. The Satapata Brahmana was compiled in 800 BC. The Ramayana and the Mahabharata were believed to have been compiled between 200 BC and 200 AD, though sections may have been much older. 

Therefore, Hinduism is truly diverse unlike Christianity and Islam, which are more monolithic in nature, and are mostly derived from a single tradition. Hinduism is therefore a way of life, and represents the cultures and traditions of the diverse peoples of India. According to Hinduism, God is present in everything at all times. Therefore, Hinduism talks about Vasudeva Kutumbam, which means the whole world is one family. This is the tradition of Hinduism that we must embrace. Unfortunately, historical models to study Hinduism are badly outdated, and Hinduism studies have greatly suffered as a result. Hinduism studies in some Western circles, have been wrongly and fallaciously associated with the caste system, and this is wrong. Ambedkar may also have criticized Hinduism bitterly due to his own unfortunate personal experiences, but his criticism may also have been based on outdated historical models. While many course corrections are indeed required, and models for the study of ancient Indian history must be brought uptodate, some fanatical interpretations of Hinduism that are based on a hatred of other cultures and traditions have emerged in the recent past. This will only bring Hinduism and Indian cultural and religious traditions a bad name, and must be nipped in the bud. This is because people are now better educated that ever before (The world has also become highly globalized, and barriers are being rapidly broken down). People can therefore easily see through them. It therefore stands to reason that enlightened and progressive interpretations of Hinduism must prevail. Interpretations of Hinduism must also be in line with a scientific temper, as Hinduism can easily be made relatively compatible with modern science, at least in relation to other religions. We propose that this can be called the Vijnana school in Hinduism, The Hindu Mahasabha and the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh had fought valiantly against the evils and the evils of the caste system in the early twentieth century. They must also therefore fight for scientific and liberal interpretations of Hinduism, a move that will only stand them in good stead, and help the cause of Hinduism and India as well. 

Sujay Rao Mandavilli